Statistics and Research Design Flashcards
Research can be categorized as:
a. qualitative
b. quantitative
c. both a. and b.
c. Research is the systematic study and investigation of a
phenomenon in order to reveal, analyze, and establish facts,
principles, and theories. The various methods of research can
be categorized as qualitative or quantitative.
True or False. Qualitative research is conducted to obtain a
holistic description of the naturalistic, contextual approach,
emphasizes understanding and interpretation, and is
primarily inductive in nature. The investigator’s perspective
is an important element of the research process.
True. Qualitative Research is conducted to obtain holistic
(relating to or concerned with wholes or with complete
systems rather than with the analysis of, treatment of, or
dissection into parts) description of the quality of
relationships, actions, situations, or other phenomena. It uses
a naturalistic approach whereby (subject(s) is/are observed
without interruption under normal or natural circumstances),
contextual approach, emphasizes understanding and
interpretation, and is primarily inductive (ideas are
processed from the specific to the general in nature).
True or False. Quantitative research is conducted to obtain
numerical data on variables. It makes use of empirical
methods and statistical procedures, emphasizes prediction,
generalizability, and causality, and is primarily deductive.
True. Quantitative Research is conducted to obtain numerical
data on variables. It makes use of empirical (capable of
being verified or disproved by observation or experiment)
methods and statistical procedures, emphasizes prediction,
generalizability, and causality, and is primarily
deductive (ideas are processed from the general to the
specific).
Quantitative research is further categorized as
nonexperimental or _____.
experimental
Nonexperimental research is conducted to:
a. to test hypotheses
b. collect data on variables rather than to test hypotheses
c. is emphasized on the EPPP
b. nonexperimental (descriptive) research is conducted to
collect data on variables rather than to test hypotheses about
the relationship between them. Correlational research,
archival research, case studies, and surveys are ordinarily
nonexperimental.
Experimental research is conducted to:
a. to test hypotheses
b. collect data on variables rather than to test hypotheses
c. is emphasized on the EPPP
d. both a. and c.
d. Experimental research is conducted to test hypotheses
about the effects of one or more independent variables on
one or more dependent variables. Experimental research is
emphasized on the psychology licensing exam.
Name the steps to Planning and Conducting Experimental Research using the acronym: Dumb Calculations Stop-up Cranial Arterial Reasoning
- Developing An Idea Into A Testable Hypothesis
- Choosing An Appropriate Research Design
- Selecting A Sample
- Conducting The Study
- Analyzing The Obtained Data
- Reporting The Results
a _____ is any characteristic, behavior, event, or other
phenomenon that is capable of varying or existing in at least
two different states, conditions, or levels (e.g., gender).
variable
A _____ is a characteristic that is restricted to a single state
or condition.
Constant; For example, gender may be treated as a constant
if only male subjects are used in the study.
Researchers normally distinguish between two types of
variables: A person’s status on the _____ variable is assumed
to affect his/her status on the ______ variable.
independent; dependent
If a psychologist conducts a research study to test the
hypothesis that children who watch violent films are more
aggressive than children who do not, the study’s independent
variable is ______.
To answer this question correctly you would need to ask
yourself, “What are the effects of (INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE) on (DEPENDENT VARIABLE)?” The answer
would be: What are the effects of (films: violent vs.
nonviolent) on aggressiveness.
To assess the effects of an independent variable on a
dependent variable, the independent variable must have at
least
a. one level
b. two levels
c. three levels
b. two levels; The IV(s) affect(s) or alter(s) status of the
dependent variable (DV); it is manipulated by the
experimenter; Each IV must have at least two levels, which
provides a point for comparison. Comparisons on the DV are
made across different levels of the IV. When the
psychologist is using only one variable as the IV, then the
effects of that IV may be compared by using a self-control
procedure whereby the effects of no treatment on that
variable may serve as the second variable.
The dependent variable is:
a. manipulated
b. measured
c. left alone
d. not necessary
Dependent Variable (DV, outcome, Y) n status on this variable seems to depend on the status of another variable (the IV). It is considered the outcome of the study and is measured by pretests and posttests. This variable is not manipulated, but measured only
To identify the IV(s) and DV(s) in a study, translate the
information into a question:
What is the effect of _____ on _____ ?
Independent Variable; Dependent Variable
When using manipulated independent variables, the
psychologist will be able to determine which levels of the
IVs will be administered to subjects. However, in some
studies, the psychologist cannot control the independent
variables. When this happens, the IVs are considered ______
variables.
a. constant
b. organismic
c. dependent
b. organismic; The use of organismic (a complex structure of
interdependent and subordinate elements whose relations and
properties are largely determined by their function in the
whole) variables also limits the study in that the psychologist
will not be able to determine if any observed relationships
are causal in nature.
The IV and DV must be defined in terms of the method or
process that will be used to identify or measure them. Once
this is done, the variables are said to be:
a. descriptively analyzed
b. operationally defined
c. appropriate for the study
b. operationally defined; Each variable must be defined and
measured(e.g., score on a measure such as the WAIS or use
of observation).
An important decision when using _____ to identify or
measure a behavior is how to record that behavior.
a. observation
b. quasi experimental research
c. experimental research
a. Whenever observation is used to identify or measure
behavior, an important decision is how to record or measure
that behavior.
True or False. When using observational methods to obtain
measures on the DV, there are four main ways to measure
variables: content analysis, behavioral sampling, situational
sampling, sequential analysis.
True. Content Analysis organizing the data into categories;
Behavioral Sampling systematic method for sampling and
recording the frequency or duration of the behavior and/or
rating the behavior in terms of its qualitative characteristics;
Situational Sampling alternative to behavioral sampling,
used when the goal of the study is to observe a behavior in a
number of settings, helps increase generalizability of the
study’s findings; Sequential Analysis entails coding of
behavioral sequences rather than isolated behavioral events
and is used to study complex social behaviors.
_____ analysis involves recording a subject’s verbalizations
when she has been instructed to “think aloud” while solving
a complex cognitive problem
Protocol Analysis- subject is asked to think aloud while
solving a problem. The subject’s verbalizations are recorded
and coded in term of relevant categories. Protocol = (record
of a document or transaction).
_____ recording is particularly useful when the target
behavior has no clear beginning or end.
Interval recording-observing a behavior for a period of
time that has been divided into equal intervals (e.g., a
30-minute period that has been divided into 15-second
intervals) and recording whether or not the behavior occurs
during each interval. Use for studying complex interactions
and behaviors that have no clear beginning or end such as
laughing, talking, or playing.
_____ sampling is an effective technique when the behavior
occurs infrequently or leaves a permanent record.
Event Sampling (recording)- observing a behavior each
time that it occurs. This technique is good for studying
behaviors that occur infrequently, that have a long duration,
or that leave a permanent record or other product (e.g., a
completed worksheet or test).
Experimental research is categorized as either true
experimental or quasi-experimental. The primary feature that
distinguishes true experimental research from
quasi-experimental research is that, in the former, the
experimenter can randomly _____ subjects to different
treatment groups:
a. assign
b. rotate
a. assigne subjects; True Experimental Research provides the
amount of control necessary to conclude that the observed
variability in the dependent variable is actually caused by
variability in a independent variable. In order for the study to
be true experimental research, the psychologist must be
able to:
·Control the experimental
·Determine which levels of the IV to include
·Randomly assign subjects to different treatment groups (i.e.,
to different levels of the IV)
Radomization of subjects to different treatment groups
allows the experimenter to be more certain that subjects in
different groups are initially similar and, consequently, that
any observed differences between then on the _____
variable(s) were caused by the _____ variable(s):
a. dependent; independent
b. independent; dependent
c. constant; organismic
a. dependent; independent
Random Assignment (randomization) helps ensure that any
observed differences between groups on the dependent
variable are actually due to the effects of the IV.
True or False. When using Quasi-experimental Research, an
experimenter can sometimes control the assignment of
subjects to treatment groups.
False. Quasi-experimental Research- experimenter cannot
control the assignment of subjects to treatment groups; must
use intact or (pre-existing) groups or a single treatment
group.
When a researcher must use intact or (pre-existing) groups or
a single treatment group, s/he is doing:
a. experimental research
b. quasi-experimental research
b. Quasi-experimental Research- experimenter cannot
control the assignment of subjects to treatment groups; must
use intact or (pre-existing) groups or a single treatment
group.
With regard to standard sampling techniques, when using
this method, every member of the population has an equal
chance of being included in the sample, and the selection of
one member from the population has no effect on the
selection of another member:
a. cluster sampling
b. stratified random sampling
c. simple random sampling
b. Simple Random Sampling
-Each member of population has an equal chance of being
included in the sample
-Selection of one member from the population has no effect
on the selection of another member
With regard to standard sampling techniques, the
experiementor might want to use this method when the
population of interest varies in terms of specific “strata”
(characteristics) that are relevant to the research hypothesis:
a. cluster sampling
b. stratified random sampling
c. simple random sampling
b. Stratified Random Sampling
-Use when the population varies in terms of strata
(characteristics) that are relevant to study
-Divide the population into the appropriate strata (e.g., SES,
race, age, etc.) and randomly select subjects from each
stratum.
With regard to standard sampling techniques, the
experimenter might want to use this method when it is not
possible to identify or obtain access to the entire population
of interest:
a. cluster sampling
b. stratified random sampling
c. simple random sampling
a. Cluster Sampling
-Select units (clusters) of individuals that are relevant to
study
-Include all individual in those units/clusters or randomly
select individuals from units/cluster (Multistage Cluster
Sampling) when it is not possible to identify or obtain access
to the entire population of interest.
Explain the difference between random assignment and
random selection.
Both are important in research but for different reasons.
Random Assignment allows investigator to be more
certain that an observed effect on the DV was actually
caused by the IV.
Random Selection enables the investigator to generalize
his/her findings from the sample to the population.
It is random assignment that distinguishes true experimental
research from quasi-experimental research.
An educational psychologist believes that children are better
spellers if they are provided with “spaced” practice rather
than “massed” practice whiel they are learning new words.
Identify the IV and DV:
IV(s):
DV(s):
IV(s): types of practice
DV(s): spelling ability
Dr. Mean wants to test the hypothesis that a mastery learning
technique is more effective than the traditional instructional
approach for teaching college algebra but that its
effectiveness is a function of a student’s need for
achievement and math aptitude.
IV(s):
DV(s):
IV(s):instuctional method, need for achievement, math
aptitude
DV(s): algebra achievement
Dr. Freud wants to compare the effects of
cognitive-behavioral therapy, client-centered therapy, and
psychoanalytic psychotherapy for reducing test anxiety in
high- and low-achieving college students as measured by a
physiological measure of anxiety and the Taylor Manifest
Anxiety Scale. Identify the IV and DV:
IV(s):
DV(s):
IV(s): type of therapy, achievement level
DV(s): physiological measure of anxiety, Taylor Manifest
Anxiety Scale
A school principal suspects that a teacher’s expectations
about a student’s academic performance will have a
“self-fulfilling prophecy” effect on the student’s own
expectations and actual academic achievement but that the
magnitude of the effect will depend on the student’s level of
self-esteem. Identify the IV and DV:
IV(s):
DV(s):
IV(s): teacher expectations, student self-esteem
DV(s): student expectations, student achievement
A researcher asks a sample of male and female mental health
professionals to describe a “healthy male adult” and a
“healthy female adult.” Based on his review of the literature,
he expects that the adjectives used by both male and female
professionals to describe a healthy male will be more
positive than the adjectives used to describe a healthy
female. Identify the IV and DV:
IV(s):
DV(s):
IV(s):gender of mental health professionals, gender of
healthy adult
DV(s): descriptive adjectives of healthy adult
To investigate the effects of watching violent movies on
aggressive behavior, Dr. Hatchet has male and female
children who have been identified as either very aggressive,
moderately aggressive, mildly aggressive, or nonaggressive
watch either a violent or neutral film. Following the film, he
observes each child during a 60-minute free play period and
counts the number of aggressive acts the child exhibits:
Identify the IV and DV:
IV(s):
DV(s):
IV(s):initial aggressiveness, gender, type of film
DV(s): number of aggressive acts
An investigator compares the performance of a single group
of subjects before and after exposure to an intervention. This
study is a (true/quasi-) experimental study.
quasi experimental study because experimenter could not
control the assignment of subjects to treatment groups
because s/he had to use an intact or (pre-existing) groups or a
single treatment group.
Random (selection/assignment) of subjects is critical for
ensuring the generalizability of research results.
selection;
Random Assignment Vs. Random Selection
Random Assignment allows investigator to be more
certain that an observed effect on the DV was actually
caused by the IV.
Random Selection enables the investigator to generalize
his/her findings from the sample to the population.
When a study’s independent variable is an organismic
variable, the study is considered to be a (true/quasi-)
experimental study.
quasi-experimental
When using protocol analysis, an investigator is interested in: a. infrequent behaviors b. verbal reports c. historical events
b. verbal reports; Protocol Analysis- subject is asked to
think aloud while solving a problem. The subject’s
verbalizations are recorded and coded in term of relevant
categories.
a. INCORRECT - Event Sampling is good for studying
behaviors that occur infrequently, that have a long duration,
or that leave a permanent record or other product (e.g., a
completed worksheet or test).
A psychologist designs a study to assess prosocial behaviors
(smiling, making eye contact, etc.) in infants while
interacting with caregivers. the best sampling (recording)
technique for these behaviors would be:
a. interval
b. cluster
c. event
a. Interval recording- observing a behavior for a period of
time that has been divided into equal intervals (e.g., a
30-minute period that has been divided into 15-second
intervals) and recording whether or not the behavior occurs
during each interval. Use for studying complex interactions
and behaviors that have no clear beginning or end such as
laughing, talking, or playing.
b. no such thing
c. INCORRECT - Event Sampling (recording)- observing a
behavior each time that it occurs. This technique is good for
studying behaviors that occur infrequently, that have a long
duration, or that leave a permanent record or other product
(e.g., a completed worksheet or test).
The “hallmark” of true (versus quasi-) experimental research
is:
a. the ability to randomly select subjects from the population
b. the ability to randomly assign subjects to treatment groups
c. the ability to test hypotheses about the relationship
between variables.
b
To obtain a sample of elementary school children for your
research study, you randomly select several schools from the
population of schools and then randomly choose students
from the schools that you have selected. This is an example
of:
a. quota sampling
b. stratified random sampling
c. cluster sampling
c. cluster sampling; Cluster Sampling
-Select units (clusters) of individuals that are relevant to
study
-Include all individual in those units/clusters or randomly
select individuals from units/cluster (Multistage Cluster
Sampling) when it is not possible to identify or obtain access
to the entire population of interest.
Which of the following would be most useful for studying behaviors that leave a permanent record: a. time sampling b. situation sampling c. event recording
c. event recording; Event Sampling (recording)- observing
a behavior each time that it occurs. This technique is good
for studying behaviors that occur infrequently, that have a
long duration, or that leave a permanent record or other
product (e.g., a completed worksheet or test).
When conducting an experimental research study, an
experimenter wants a design that will maximize variability in
the dependent variable that is due to the _____, control
variability due to _____, and minimize variability due to
_____.
independent variable, extraneous variables (systematic
error), random error
Experimental variability, or variability in the dependent
variable that is due to the _____ variable, is maximized when
groups are made as different as possible with respect to that
variable, while variability due to _____ error is minimized
by ensuring that random fluctuations in subjects, conditions,
and measuring instruments are eliminated or equalized
among all treatment groups.
independent, random
True experimental research helps an investigator minimize
the effects of random (unpredictable) fluctuations in
subjects, conditions, and measuring instruments.
Tip! It is important to remember to pick a design that
minimizes the effects of both systematic error (error due to
extraneous variables) and random error.
A number of techniques are used to control the effects of
extraneous variables, which are irrelevant to the research
hypothesis but correlate with the _____ variable.
dependent
Extraneous (Confounding) Variable- source of systematic
error; variable that is irrelevant to the purpose of the research
study, confounds its results because it has a systematic effect
(correlates with) the DV.
Randomization, or the random _____ of subject to different
levels of the independent variable, is considered the most
powerful method of control because it helps ensure that
groups are initially _____ with regard to all known and
unknown extraneous variables.
assignment; equivalent
Random Assignment of Subjects to Treatment Groups
(Randomization)
·Equalizes the effects of extraneous variables
·Most powerful method of experimental control
·Primary characteristic of true experimental research
Matching is useful for controlling an extraneous variable
when the number of subjects is too _____ to guarantee that
random assignment will equalize the groups in terms of an
extraneous variable.
small; Matching Subjects on the Extraneous Variable
(Matching)
·Match subjects in terms of their status on that variable
·Randomly assign match subjects to one of the treatment
groups
·Useful when = sample size is too small to guarantee that
random assignment will equalize the groups with regard to
the effects of the extraneous variable
Blocking is similar to matching except that subjects are not
individually matched but are _____ in terms of their status
on the extraneous variable, and subjects within each _____
are randomly assigned to one of the treatment groups.
blocked (grouped); block
Building the Extraneous Variable into the Study (Blocking)
·Include extraneous variable as IV so that its effects on the
DV may be statistically analyzed
·Subjects are grouped (blocked) on the basis of their status
on the extraneous variable
·Subjects are then randomly assigned to one of the treatment
groups
The ANCOVA or other statistical technique can be used to
statistically _____ the effects of an extraneous variable.
remove, Statistical Control of the Extraneous Variable -
ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance) or other statistical
technique to remove variability (equalizing all subjects with
regard to their status on that variable) in the DV.
When a study has _____ validity, the experimenter can
conclude that observations in the dependent variable were
caused by variations in the independent variable rather than
by other factors:
a. internal
b. external
c. face
a. internal; a study has internal validity when it allows an
investigator to determine if there is a causal relationship
between independent and dependent variables.
Internal validity is threatened when the investigator cannot:
a. Control the effects of the IV
b. Control the effects of extraneous variables
c. Minimize the effects of random error
d. all of the above
d
_____ refers to an external event that is irrelevant to the
research hypothesis but that occurs duing the course of a
study and affects the subjects’ status on the dependent
variable:
a. history
b. maturation
a. history; History- external event systematically affects the
status of subjects on the DV. History = a significant event
that effects people.
_____ refers to changes that occur within subjects during the
course of a study as the result of the passage of time and that
have a systematic effect on the DV:
a. history
b. maturation
b. maturation; Maturation- any biological or psychological
change that occurs within subjects during the course of a
study as a function of time and is not relevant to the research
hypothesis (e.g., fatigue, boredom, hunger, physical growth,
intellectual growth). Maturation = the emergence of personal
and behavioral characteristics through growth processes.
Statistical _____ is the tendency for very high and low
scores to move toward the mean on retesting.
regression; Statistical Regression- tendency of extreme
scores on a measure to regress or move toward the mean
when the measure is readministered to the same group of
people. Statistical regression threatens a study’s internal
validity whenever subjects have been selected because of
their extreme status on the dependent variable.
Statistical regression threatens a study’s internal validity
whenever subjects are selected to participate in the study
because of their extreme scores on the _____ variable
measure
dependent
_____ is a problem when subjects in different treatment
groups are not similar in terms of important characteristics at
the onset of the study.
selection; Selection- method used to assign subjects results
in systematic differences between the groups at the
beginning of the study (e.g., forced to use intact groups).
