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1
Q

Biology

A

The study of living things, which we call organisms

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2
Q

Proteins (2)

A
  1. large, complex molecules made up of amino acids
  2. essential for the body to function properly
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3
Q

Prokaryotes

A

a single-celled organism that has no membrane bound organelles

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4
Q

Prokaryotes Tree

A

Prokaryotes
Bacteria archaea
(eukaryotes are larger cells that has a mitochondria)

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5
Q

Cellular Specialization

A

the process by which cells develop unique structures and functions to perform specific tasks within an organism

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6
Q

aerobic metabolism

A

The use of Di-Oxygen to extract energy

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7
Q

anaerobic metabolism

A

Gaining energy by extracting it from other living organisms

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8
Q

Genome

A

the complete set of DNA, or genetic material, in an organism

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9
Q

Genome tree

A

Genome - DNA(Genes) - Nucleotides

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10
Q

phylogenetic tree

A

a visual representation of the evolutionary relationships between organisms

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11
Q

genus

A

a taxonomic group covering more than one species
Has multiple species in this category

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12
Q

binomial

A

a two-term naming system that gives each species a unique scientific name

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13
Q

internal environment

A

the environment in which cells are found

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14
Q

homeostasis

A

keeping a stable internal enviorment in order to survive

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15
Q

controlled experiment

A

An experiment where a variable is manipulated (independent), and a variable is studied (dependent)

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16
Q

comparative experiment

A

a simple comparison of unmanipulated data

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17
Q

null hypothesis

A

the proposition that there is no effect or no relationship between phenomena or populations OR DATA

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18
Q

hydrogen bond

A

an electrostatic attraction between a hydrogen atom and another electronegative atom, such as nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine

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19
Q

hydrophilic

A

Polar and therefore loves water

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20
Q

hydrophobic

A

non-polar and is water repellent

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21
Q

When does a chemical reaction occur?

A

When moving atoms collide with sufficient energy to combine or to change their bonding partners

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22
Q

Energy

A

capacity to do work

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23
Q

cohesion

A

the property of molecules of the same substance to stick together due to an attraction between them

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24
Q

acid

A

H+ donater

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25
Q

base

A

H+ acceptor

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26
Q

buffer

A

the maintenance of internal constancy-homeostasis. A mixture of a weak acid and its corresponding base, capturing the H+

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27
Q

Definition of a Macromolecule

A

Polymers that exceed molecular weight of 1000

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28
Q

Macromolecule Basic Structure

A

Polymer - Monomer
(Except Lipids)

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29
Q

4 Marcomolecules and explain simply

A
  1. Protein - 20 amino acids
  2. Carbohydrates - forms giant molecules by linking chemically
  3. Nucleic Acid - four kinds of nucleotide monomers linked
  4. Lipids - Forms large structures through nonpolar covalent bonds
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30
Q

Isomers

A

Same chemical formula, different arrangement

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31
Q

What are the three different types of Isomers?

A
  1. Structural isomers - complete re-arrangement
  2. Cis-Trans - Carbon Double Bond removed
  3. Optical - mirror image
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32
Q

Primary structure

A

(protein)
the linear sequence of amino acids in its polypeptide chain

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33
Q

Secondary Structure

A

(alpha) helix - coil of hydrogen bonds
(beta) pleated sheet - pleated hydrogen bonds

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34
Q

Tertiary Structure

A

3D bonded of secondary structure formed by hydrogen bonds - if these bond, it is called a quaternary structure

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35
Q

Carbohydrates

What is the formula and its role

A

(CnH2nOn) polymers that make up the larger part of the organism

36
Q

Four types of Carbohydrates

A
  1. Monosaccharides - 1 cell sugars, simple sugars
  2. Disaccharides - 2 monosaccharides covalently linked
  3. Oligosaccharides - 3-20
  4. Polysaccharides - 20+
37
Q

Glycosidic linkages

A

The Covalent bonding of monosaccharides that happens by condensation reactions

38
Q

glucose

A

blood sugar (monosaccharide)

39
Q

glycogen

A

water soluble glucose that is used to store glucose in liver and muscles and is used to store energy

40
Q

Cellulose

A

a complex carbohydrate that is the chief part of the cell walls of plants

(It is strong because it is linear)

41
Q

What are Lipids made of?
What is its characteristics?

A

Is made of non polar covalent bonds (Van Der Waals) which are hydrophobic

42
Q

Triglycerides

A

Simple lipids
room temp solids- fats
room temp liquids - oils

43
Q

How are Triglycerides made?

A

They are made by the ester linkage of glycerol (a small molecule with three -OH groups) and a fatty acid (nonpolar hydrocarbon chain) which releases water molecules

44
Q

What is a saturated fatty acid, and what are its attributes?

A

Definition: All hydrocarbon chains are single bonds

Attributes: No Kinks, packed, high melting points, solids at room temperature

45
Q

What is a unsaturated fatty acid, and what are its attributes?

A

Definition: All hydrocarbon chains are double bonds

Attributes: Kinks, poorly packed, low melting points, liquids at room temperature

46
Q

amphipathic

A

both hydrophobic and hydrophilic

47
Q

phospholipids

A

A lipid (fat) that contains phosphorus

48
Q

What is the role of Nucleic Acids

A

polymers specialized for storage and transmittion.

49
Q

DNA

A

Acid used for hereditary information

50
Q

RNA

A

Acid used for protein information

51
Q

Nucleotide

A

(Monomer of Nucleic Acid)
Sugar + Phosphate + Base

52
Q

Nuceluoside

A

Sugar + Base

53
Q

Pyrimidine

A

1 Ring Base of a Nucleic Acid

54
Q

Purine

A

2 ring base of a nucleic acid

55
Q

DNA Bases

A
  1. Adenine
  2. Cytosine
  3. Guanine
  4. Thymine

complementary base pairing: A-T, C-G

55
Q

RNA bases

A
  1. Adenine
  2. Cytosine
  3. Guanine
  4. Uracil

complementary base pairing: A-U, C-G

56
Q

DNA Replication

A

Exact DNA Replication

57
Q

DNA Gene Expression

A
  1. RNA copies DNA - transcription
  2. RNA gives info to protein - translation
58
Q

Genes

A

The sequence of DNA that are templates for protein

59
Q

Spontaneous Generation

A

the supposed production of living organisms from nonliving matter

60
Q

enzymes

A
  1. bind a substrate
  2. carry out chemical reactions
  3. release a product
  4. repeat
61
Q

ribozymes

A

RNA enzymes

62
Q

cells

A

the smallest unit that can live on its own and that makes up all living organisms and the tissues of the body

63
Q

membrane

A

the outer barrier of nonbiological enviroment

64
Q

protocells

A

circular fatty acids (theory)

65
Q

How are the features in a eukaryotic cell compartmentalized?

A
  1. Each Organelle has a specific role.
  2. These roles are determined by the chemical reactions that happen within the organelle.
  3. Animal and plant cells carry both similarities and differences.
66
Q

Ribosomes in Eukaryotic Cells vs Prokaryotic Cells

A

Eukaryotic - Found in specific areas
Prokaryotic -Free to roam

67
Q

How are features of cells anaylzed? (2)

A
  1. Microscopy
  2. Cell Fragmentation - Plasma membrane is destroyed so that the contents flow out and are studied
68
Q

Nucleus

A

(Largest Organelle)

Purpose
1. Location of DNA + DNA replication
2. Transcriptions - on or off
3. Region in nucleus, known as nucleolus, is where ribosomes are assembled.

Membrane - Nuclear Envelope

69
Q

Endomembrane System

A

(Takes up a lot of volume)
Interconnected system of membrane that is flattened into sheets

70
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

A

(system in cytoplasm)
This is composed of RER and SER
The Interior compartment is known as lumen

71
Q

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

A

(actively involve with synthesis of protein)
1. RER receives into its lumen newly made protein away from cytoplasm
2. RER “tags” the protein to their location.
3. Proteins are then shipped to their location
4. Most membrane bound proteins are produced in ribosomes of RER and are sent to lumen.

72
Q

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

A

(No Ribosomes, proteins synthesized in RER are chemically modified lumen of SER)
1. It makes toxic cells more polar - making them soluble and removable
2. Glycogen degradation of animal cells
3. Lipids and Steroids
4. Stores Calcium Ions

73
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

(type of endomembrane system)

  1. It receives protein sacs from the RER
  2. It modifies, concentrates, and packages before sent to destination
  3. It modifies and attaches carbohydrates to proteins.
  4. The polysaccharides which will be sent to cell wall are synthesized.
74
Q

Mitochondria

A

Purpose:
Harvests Chemical Energy (like ATP)

75
Q

Explain the Mitochondria

A

1st membrane = smooth
2nd membrane = It has the control over what goes in and out

The second membrane has a wiggly shape.
gap = cristae
no gap = matrix

The matrix contains
1. enzymes
2. ribosomes
3. DNA

76
Q

Lysosmes

A

(Part of Golgi Apparatus)

Purpose:
To degrade material taken up from outside the cell to digest obsolete comments

77
Q

Chloroplasts

A

Purpose:
1. It uses photosynthesis to convert light to energy
2. It contains ribosomes and DNA
3. It stores red, yellow, and orange pigments

Membrane:
The membrane is a potato sack that has stacks.
Each stack is called granum, and each individual plate is known as grana

78
Q

Other Membrane Enclosed Organelles

A
  1. Peroxisomes
  2. Glyoxysomes
  3. Vacuoles
79
Q

Peroxisomes

A

Purpose:
accumulates toxic peroxides and breaks them down safely

80
Q

Glyoxysomes

A

(in plants)
Purpose:
Lipids are converted into carbohydrates for transporting growing cells.

81
Q

Vacuoles

A

Purpose:
1. Storage - Toxic Waste
2. Structure - it holds 90% of volume-plants
3. Reproduction
4. Digestion

82
Q

What are the types of Cytoskeletons?

A
  1. Microfilaments
  2. Intermediate filaments
  3. Microtubes
83
Q

Microfilaments

A

Purpose:
1. It allows entire cell parts to move
2. It determines and stabilizes cell shape

84
Q

Intermediate Filaments

A

(Replaceable like fingernail or hair)
1. helps anchor cells
2. Resist Tension

85
Q

Microtubes

A

Purpose:
1. It holds the rigid skeleton
2. It is the framework along which motor protein can move structures within the cell.

AP Biology (10 decks)

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