sociology final exam Flashcards
1
Q
what is prejudice
A
an attitude that judges a person according to his or her group’s real or imagined characteristics
it is thought, but no action is made toward those thought
2
Q
what is discrimination
A
it is the unfair treatment of people because of their group membership
it is action/practice
3
Q
what is race
A
it is a social construct used to distinguish people in terms of one or more people’s physical markers. it is usually profound effects in their lives
ex: skin color
race matters because it allows social inequality to be created and perpetuated
race can be used to make a person or a group scapegoat. in this context, scapegoat is disadvantaged people that other people blame for their own problem
4
Q
what is ethnic group
A
composed of people whose perceived cultural markers are deemed socially significant
ex: language, history, religion and customs
Unlike race, this is a cultural marker not physical marker
5
Q
what is the vicious circle of racism
A
- people use physical markers to distinguish. It increases social inequality based on race by means of colonialism, slavery
- different social condition between the upper people and lower people create behavioral difference between them ex: energetic veurse lazy workers For example, North American slaves and Jewish concentration camp inmates, with little motivating them to work hard except the ultimate threat of the master’s whip, tended to do only the minimum work necessary to survive. Their masters noticed this tendency and characterized their subordinates as inherently slow and unreliable workers. In this way, racial stereotypes are born.
- People’s perceptions of behavioural differences creates racial stereotype. then the stereotypes become embedded in the culture
- then the cycle continues
6
Q
defining race and ethnicity ethnic and racial stratification in canada
A
- In the middle of the twentieth century, Canada was a society sharply stratified along ethnic and racial lines. The people with the most power and privilege were of British origin.
- WASPs (white Anglo-Saxon Protestants) in particular controlled almost all the big corporations in the country and dominated politics. Immigrants who arrived later enjoyed less power and privilege.
- Even among them, big economic differences were evident, with European immigrants enjoying higher status than immigrants of Asian ancestry, for example.
- John Porter, one of the founders of modern Canadian sociology, called mid-twentieth century Canada an ethnically and racially stratified “vertical mosaic.”
-Porter thought the retention of ethnic and racial culture was a big problem in Canada because it hampered the upward mobility of immigrants; in his view, the “Canadian value system” encouraged the retention of ethnic culture, making Canada a low-mobility society.
7
Q
what is the order of race/ethnic triangle
A
on the bottom is African Americans
next will be Asians, Lations, Native American
next on the list will be most new immigrant
next will be an old immigrant but not irish immigrant
next will be poor white WASPS (white Anglo-Saxon Protestants)
the second on top of the list will be middle class WASPS
on the top is wealthy WASPS)
8
Q
in defining race and ethnicity ethic and racial stratification in canada what happened by 1970s
A
by the 1970s
- Many members of ethnic and racial minority groups were economically successful.
- Economic differences among ethnic groups and, to a lesser degree, among racial groups, diminished.
- Ethnic and racial diversity increased among the wealthy, politicians at all levels of government, and professional groups.
- Many Canadian sociologists, including Porter himself, needed to qualify their view that ethnic and racial culture determine economic success or failure.
-The Canadian economy grew quickly in the decades after World War II.
9
Q
in ethnic and racial stratification in canada what happened in the beginning of the 1990s
A
Recent immigrants who were members of visible minority groups were less successful economically than one would expect, given their educational and other resources.
- Canada experienced an unusually high rate of unemployment in the 1990s, hovering near 10 percent until late in the decade.
- In addition, although such immigrants were selected to come to Canada because they were highly educated, their credentials were often not recognized by Canadian employers.
- The accreditation mechanisms for foreign credentials are poorly developed in this country and need to be improved.
- In addition to the resources a person possesses, the structure of opportunities for economic advancement determines income and occupational and educational attainment.
- Ethnic or racial culture by itself plays at most a minor role.
10
Q
what is canada’s multiculturalism
A
the canada multiculturalism policy emphasizes tolerance of ethnic and racial differences
the multicultural policy in canada currently focuses less on cultural pluralism than on incorporating immigrants into the larger society. In other words Canada’s multicultural policy is more about helping immigrants become part of the bigger society than it is about embracing and supporting diverse cultures equally.
the purpose of the policy is to enable members of cultural minorities to continue identifying with their heritage while eliminating barriers to their full participation in Canadian society—for instance, by preventing discrimination and encouraging public education, voting, and other forms of civic integration
11
Q
what is inequality and social structure
A
racial and ethnic inequality is more deeply rooted in social structure in biology and culture. the biological and cultural aspect of race and ethnicity are secondary to their sociological character when it comes to explaining inequality
12
Q
what is label and identity
A
experiencing a shift in racial or ethnic identity common
Social contexts, and in particular the nature
of the relations with members of other racial and ethnic groups, shape and continuously reshape a person’s racial and ethnic identity.
13
Q
does changing your social context, and racial and ethnic self-conception
A
Example: Around 1900, Italian immigrants thought of themselves as people who came from a particular town or perhaps a particular province, such as Sicily or Calabria.
They did not usually think of themselves as Italians. Italy had become a unified country only in 1861, and 40 years later, many Italian citizens still did not identify with their new Italian nationality.
In both Canada and the United States, however, government officials and other residents identified the newcomers as Italians.
The designation at first seemed odd to many of the new immigrants.
Over time, however, it stuck. Immigrants from Italy started thinking of themselves as Italian Canadians because others defined them that way
14
Q
what is a symbolic interactionist view in relations to race and ethnic
A
symbolic interactionist suggest that the development of racial and ethnic label as well as ethnic and racial identities is typically a process of negotiation
Members of a group may have a racial or an ethnic identity, but outsiders may impose a new label on them.
Group members then reject, accept, or modify the label
Negotiation between outsiders and insiders eventually results in the crystallization of a new, more or less stable, ethnic identity.
If the social context changes again, the negotiation process begins anew.
15
Q
what is imposition verse choice
A
The social construction of race and ethnicity does not mean that everyone can always choose their racial or ethnic identity freely.
There are wide variations in degree over time and from one society to the next to which people can exercise such freedom of choice.
As well, in a given society at a given time, different categories of people are more or less free to choose
Those with most freedom to choose are white European Canadians, whose ancestors arrived in Canada more than two generations ago. (Ex Irish and Italians
16
Q
what is symbolic ethnicity
A
it is a nostalgic allegiance, love for and pride to the culture of the immigrant generation or that of the old county that is not usually incorporated in everyday behavior
ex:any Irish-American people celebrate their ancestry on St. Patrick’s Day every year while ignoring their Irish ancestry for the rest of the year.
17
Q
what is racism
A
the belief that a visible characteristic of a group, such as skin colour, indicates group inferiority and justifies discrimination.
18
Q
what is institutional racism
A
Occurs when organizational policies and practices systematically discriminate against people of some racial group or groups.
19
Q
what is internal colonialism
A
involves one race or ethnic group under domination/control another in the same country
this is often paired with segregation
Prevents assimilation by segregating the colonized in terms of jobs, housing, and social contacts (ranging from friendship to marriage)
intenral colonlism can be used to describe the treatment of indigeous people by euperoean immugrant
20
Q
what is expulsion
A
the forcible removal of a population from a territory claimed by another population
expulsion can be used to describe the treatment of indigenous people by the european immigrant
21
Q
what is genocide
A
the intentional extermination of an entire population defined as a “race” or a “people”
22
Q
what is conflict theories of race and ethnicity black canadians
A
slavery: the ownership and control of people
Canada initially served as the terminus of the “underground railway.”
After the American Civil War, Canada reversed its policy of encouraging black settlement.
Government policy required the rejection of most immigration applications by black people.
23
Q
what happened to canadian population by visible minority orup 2006 and 2031
A
- canadian immigrant policy was liberalized in the 1960s
- racial and ethnic restrictions were removed
- immigrants were now admitted on the basis of their potential economic contribution to canada, their close family ties with canadians or their refugees status
- as a result canada became a more racially and ethnically diverse society
- people from india, chain and philippines were the majority new immigrant
24
Q
what is the theory of the split labour market
A
This term was proposed by Edna Bonacich.
It focuses on the social-structural barrier to assimilation
where low-wage workers of one race and high-wage workers of another race compete for the same job. The high-wage workers are likely to resent the presence of low wages competitor, so conflict is bound to happen. So racial attitudes develop or are reinforced
25
what is the conflict theories of race and ethnicity
The group that have the most trouble assimilating into the british values and institution that dominate canadian society are those that were subjected to expulsion from their native lands, conquest, slavery and split labour market
These circumstance left a legacy of racism that created social
26
what are the advantages of ethnicity
factors that enhance the values of ethnic group membership and help explain the continued participation in the life of their ethnic communities for white european communities who have lived in the country for many generations
1. economic advantages
2. political usefulness
3. ability to provide emotional
27
what is the economic advantages
community solidarity is an important resource for "ethnic entrepreneurs". theses entrepreneurs draws on their community for customers, suppliers, employee and credit and may be linked economically to the homeland as importer and exporters
28
what is political usefulness
ethnicity can be useful for increased access to resources.
ex: the urkarian community have be trying to get support from the government, this is possible because there is a big population so the government want them on their sides so they can possibly win a election
29
what is the emotional support advantages
getting support from the community after high level of prejudice and discrimination. some ethnic groups provide security and provide a sense of rootedness
30
what is the six degree of separation: types of ethnic and racial group relations
This goes from intolerance and tolerance
1. genocide: the international extermination of a population defined as a "race" or a "people". very intolerance since u hate the people so much you want to kill
2. expulsion: the forcible removal of a population from a territory claimed by another. you don't want to kill them you just want to get rid of them so you don't have to deal with all intolerable you are of them
3. slavery: ownership by one population by another. you tolerance them than genocide, you control them
4. segeneration: the spatial and institutional separation of races or ethnic groups. separate but equal. it is more tolerable than segregation because they have the right but you don't want to associate with them
5. pluralism: the retention of distinct racial and ethnic cultures combined with equal access to basic social resources. everyone can keep their ethnic culture
6. assimilation: the process by which a minority group blends into the majority population and eventually disappears as a distinct people in the larger society. most tolerable because everyone is blended, everyone has the same values, adheres to the same norms so everyone is the same so there is nothing to be tolerable of
31
what is critical race theory
holds that racism is often the outcomes of common practice that are embedded in canada's political, legal and other institutions but that many people, especially those in dominant position are not aware. Systematic race as there is something wrong with the system creating boundaries in a system
32
what is critical race theory in education
- the education system promotes students based on merit. however critical race theory will merit is basically under whiteness . though merit is a good idea it serves the white community rather than disadvantages BIPOC
- disadvantaged racial students cannot compete with other students on an equal footing
- the principle of merit sounds good however in practice it establishes a subtle form of racism and inhibits serious reforms
- critical race theorists propose new programs to improve the preparation of students from disadvantaged racial background
- efforts to address ongoing minority inequalities must begin by listening to what minority group member have t say about their experiences of injustice and inequality
- this approach can begin to uncover the may way in which apparently neural policies framed in terms of merit, colour, blindness, equity, opportunity and the like actually reproduce privilege
33
what is nuclear family based on
the nuclear family is based on marriage
34
what is marriage
it is a socially approved, presumably long-term sexual and economic union between a man and a woman
it involves reciprocal rights and obligations between the spouse and between parents and children. in other words, spouses have a responsibility to each other and parents have a responsibility to their children
35
what is polygamy/polyandry
this expanding the nuclear family horizontally by adding one or more spouses to the household
polygamy is most common as it is one man with multiples wife
polyandry is more rare as it is one woman with multiples husbands
36
what is extended family
it is expanding the nuclear family vertically by adding another generation. one or more of the spouses parents to the household
37
what does the twentieth century is characterized in families
- decrease in marriage rate: the numbers of marriage that occurs in a year for every 1000 people in a population
- show slow rise in divorce rate: the numbers of divorces that occurs in a year for every 1000 people in a population
- decline in total fertility rate: the average numbers of children that would be born to a woman over her lifetime if she had the same numbers of children as women in each age cohort in a given year
38
what is conflict theorists argument against functionalism
the conflict theorists argues that functionalists generally ignore the degree to which the traditional nuclear family is based on gender inequality and change in power relations between women and men alter family structures
39
what is functionalist perspective to family
functionalists have a good perceptive family because they believe family is at the core of society
40
what is the conflict and feminist theories to family
Friedrich Engels argued that the traditional nuclear family comes from the emergence of wealth inequalities that came with the industrial revolution. controlling women sexually and economically ensured that a man property would be transmitted only to his offspring
They have a disdain for the nuclear family
the proposed solution to this would be eliminating private property
but
- gender inequality exists in non-capitalist society ex: rome
- patriarchy is deeply rooted in the economic, military and cultural history of humankind
for feminist only "genuine gender revolution", aka revolution of human nature can alter this states of affairs
41
what is the gender division of labor
the two main factors reduce the difference between men and women in domestic chores
1. the smaller the gap between the husband's and the wife' s earning, the more equal the division of household labor
2. attitude: The more people agree that household chores should be divided equally, the more equal the division of labor becomes. in other words, The more agreement that there should be equality in the household division of labour, the more equality there is
42
what is mate selection
in most societies throughout human history, love had little to do with marriage. Historical marriages were arranged by third parties who wished to maximize their family's prestige, economic benefits and political advantages.
choosiness a marriage partner based on love gained currency with the rise of liberalism and individualism
43
what are the social forces that largely determine who people fall in love with and marry
1. potential spouses being resources to the "marriage market"
2. others often intervene to prevent marriage between people from different groups
3. demographic variables
44
what is the difference between marriage and cohabitation
marriage:
- sexual relations and common residence
- contract accomplished through ritual and legal authority. they have social script
- clearly defined roles and expectation
- more enforceable (penalties for ending a marriage)
cohabitation:
- sexual relations and common residence
- typically starts without fanfare
- cohabiting couples must create their own script
- rights to property upon dissolution are less clearly specified
45
what is cohabitation
The rate of cohabitation has more than quintupled from 5.6 percent in 1981 to 27.1 percent of all people living together as a couple in 2016.
Rates of cohabitation are not uniform across Canada: rates of cohabitation are much higher in Québec.
Today, most Canadians aged 20–29 experience cohabitation as their first union.
The average length of cohabiting relationship in Canada is a little over three years.
Some use cohabitation as an intermediate step on the path to marriage.
Other couples view cohabitation as an alternative to living alone.
Some view cohabitation as an alternative to marriage.
46
what is friend with benefit
Involves occasional sexual relations with a friend, without commitment or romantic feelings for one another.
47
what is hookup
Spontaneous, one-time sexual encounters between strangers or acquaintances.
48
what is living apart together
A living arrangement in which each person maintains his or her own separate residence, but both people consider themselves to be in a committed intimate relationship.
49
what is same-sex marriage and civil unions
Worldwide, and often amid sharp controversy, the legal and social definition of “family” is being broadened to include same-sex partners in long-term relationships.
The 2016 census recorded 72 880 same-sex couple households, which accounts for less than 1 percent of all couple households in Canada.
50
what is the ground of divorce prior to 1968
the only ground for divorce was adultery
cruelty was also ground for divorce was allowed in Nova Scotia
51
what expanded the ground of divorce
the divorce act of of 1968 expanded the ground of divorce to adultery, cruelty, after 3 years
52
what is the 1985 amendment of Canadian's divorce act
we can now have no fault divorce, where couples don't have to approve anything. they can just divorce because they are not comparable. they can divorce after a year
53
what is the new stats for divorce
approximately 41 percent of marriage end in divorce before the 30th year of marriage
54
what are the predictor of divorce
1. interpersonal factors
2. demographic factors
3. social factors
55
what is interpersonal factors as the predictor of divorce
- Unhappiness with one’s spouse
-Conflict, including violence
- One or both partners struggling with substance abuse or mental health problems
-Infidelity
56
what is the demographic factors as the predictors of divorce
- women are more likely than men are to initiate divorce
- Divorce is more likely to occur in the earlier years of marriage.
- Couples who are religious are less likely to divorce, particularly when they belong to the same religion.
57
what is the social factors as a predictors of divorce
- Living in poverty
- Having less education
- Cohabiting with one’s spouse before marriage
- Having a premarital birth or a previous marriage
-Having grown up in a household without two continuously married parents
58
what are the consequences of divorce
Early studies found deficits in the well-being of children in divorced-parent households.However, these early studies were deeply flawed:
-Children in the study were all known to be struggling with divorce.
-Did not include a control group.
-Did not allow researchers to evaluate whether some of the problems existed prior to divorce.
59
what does the stress theory suggest
divorce was studied from the perspective of stress theory
stress theory suggest that experiences such as divorce require adjustment to new circumstances, but do not necessarily threaten well-being.
60
when is divorce less stressful and adjustment is more difficult
Divorce is less stressful
-when parents continue to provide their children with reassurance and affirmation,
-when there are relatively few changes to children’s daily routines,
-and when children are encouraged to talk about their feelings.
however adjustment is more difficult
- when parents are too overwhelmed to be effective caregivers,
-when divorce forces children to move out of their neighborhoods and away from peers and positive adult role models,
-and when children are encouraged to take the side of one parent over another.
61
what is economic hardship is relation to divorce
Women’s income usually declines, while men’s income changes little:
-Husbands tend to earn more than wives.
-Children typically live with mothers after divorce
62
what is child support
involves money paid by the non-custodial parent to
the custodial parent for the purpose of supporting the children of a separated marital, cohabiting, or sexual relationship.Child support payments are often inadequate.
63
what is divorce in relation to reduced contact with the non-residential parent
- It is not the amount of contact with a non-residential parent that makes a difference, but the degree of cooperation and commitment to shared parenting that determine whether such contact helps or hinders a child’s adjustment to parental divorce
- Up to one-half of divorced parents subsequently remarried or cohabit.
- However, many children living in step-parent households derive little benefit from the additional income and supervision that a step-parent brings to the household.
64
what is reproductive choice
Women now have more say over whether they will have children and, if so, when they will have them and how many they will have.
they exercise choice through
- contraception
- abortion
65
what are the attitudes toward abortion (reproductive choice)
Attitudes about abortion vary by age, education, and religious beliefs, and are influenced by circumstances that lead to abortion.
Canadians remain divided on abortion issues.
Concern remains that if abortion is criminalized,
poor women and their unwanted children would suffer most
66
what are the means of reproductive choice in facilitating pregnancy and birth using reproductive technologies
1.Artificial insemination
2.Surrogate motherhood
3.In vitro fertilization
4.Various screening techniques
67
what are social, ethical and legal issues
Reproductive technologies raise several sociological and ethical issues.
1. discrimination
2. terms "mother" and "father rendered out-of-date or vague
68
what are zero-child families
where there is no child in the families
Zero-child families tend to be more satisfied with their marriage than those families with a child.
the common factors of infertility
1. the rising cost of raising a child
2. the growth of attractive alternative
69
what is lone-parent families
During the first half of the twentieth century, lone-parent families were generally the result of the death of one parent. Today, they are usually due to separation or divorce.
Also, single, never-married mothers.
About one in five children live in a lone-parent household, mostly headed by women. however the number of father-headed lone parent households has been growing faster than mother headed lone parent
70
what are step-parent families
about one in ten children under the age of 14 lives in a step-parent family
over the past 15 years, the proportion of simple step-parent families has declined, while the proportion of complex step-parent families has increased
71
what is homogenizing and sorting
school endow young people with the key capacities of communication, coordination and economic productivity
72
what are the two main tasks education accomplish
1. create homogeneity out of diversity by instructing all students in uniform curriculum. making the population less diverse
2. sort students into paths that terminate in different social classes. in other words, lead student whether into a good middle class or the lower working class
73
what are the other point oh homogenizing and sorting
- the education system has displaced organized religion as the main purveyor of formal knowledge
- it is second in importance only to the family as an agent of socialization
- Universal mass education is a recent phenomenon and is limited to relatively wealthy countries.
74
what are the overview of mass education
- 300 years ago: Most people were illiterate.
- 100 years ago: The majority of people in the world never attended school.
- 1950: Only 10 percent of the world’s countries had a system of compulsory mass education.
Today, many countries in Africa still have literacy rates below 50 percent.
Canada has over 15 500 elementary and secondary schools employing over 300 000 educators, who teach more than 5 million children.
In 2012, university enrollment stood at 1.9 million.
64 percent of people between the ages of
25 and 64 have attained some post secondary education.
75
what is uniform socialization
Creating systems of education that had sufficient resources to include all children was a huge social change.
Replacing the family and religion with a centralized and rationalized system created strong pressures toward uniformity and standardization( as it destroys creativity)
76
what is educational achievement
The learning or skill that an individual acquires and, at least in principle, is what grades reflect.
77
what is educational attainment
The number of years of schooling completed or, for higher levels, certificates and degrees earned.
78
what is the individual advantages and disadvantages
- Higher educational attainment is effective for securing more employment and higher earnings.
-Education also enhances earnings prospects.
- There are exceptions, but generally more education and better earnings tend to go together.
79
what is the printing press in the rise of mass schooling
the printing press allowed literacy to spread beyond elite circles
80
what is the protestantism in the rise of mass schooling
protestants were encouraged to read scriptures regualrly
81
what is the democracy in the rise of mass schooling
led to free education for all children
82
what is the industrialization in the rise of mass schooling
mass education is widely recognized as an absolute necessity for creating an industrial economy. education provide the basic skills since instructions and tasks are more complicated in the industrial economy
83
what is the rise of the mass schooling
the most important reason for the rise of mass schooling was industrialization
it was evident that a highly productive economy requires an education system. we need a large amount of people for mass labor forces and enough money to train the people
modernization theory will agree that an investment in education is an important step in achieving great national wealth
education is not only a source of wealth; it is also a product of wealth
84
what is the latent (unintended) functions of education
-- create a youth culture ( they have their vocabulary, cultural assumption
- create a marriage market leads to assortative mating as we tends to be in relationship with the same working class and religious
- create a custodial and surveillance system for children ( mostly like a daycare)
- create a means of maintaining wage level ( as a university makes students “woke”)
85
what is the manifest functions: the logic of industrialism of school
- social institutions must perform certain common, manifest function to make industrialism possible
- a variety of manifest function that school performs are aimed at creating solidarity through cultural homogeneity. school is also supposed to make everyone Canadian to be homogenize
- schools also transmit hare knowledge and culture between generations, thereby fostering a common cultural identity. like learning about shakespeare, canadian government
86
what is the common school standards
The uniformity of much industrial work requires an education system that teaches workers common standards.
a system had to created in which a privileged few were recruited to elite institutions, socialized to the ew standard and then sent back to peripheral regions to impose the uniform standard on standard . like the few students who end up going to elite schools like oxford and harvard
87
what is national solidarity
public education promotes national solidarity by saying the national anthem. it promotes membership in a national community composed of individuals who were mostly strangers but feels connected with shared national
as public education grew, mass socialization shifted to a common set of cultural belief, norms and values directed by a central state
they became part of an "imagined community" known as the nation
88
what is meritocracy
A social hierarchy in which rank corresponds to individual capacities is fairly tested against a common standard. in other words,an individual rank is related to your personal capacities. The best people will go to the best school
89
what are the economic barrier to higher education
In most cases, higher education in Canada requires students and their families to shoulder significant financial burdens, including rising tuition fees, residence fees, and so on.
Social class origin strongly affects how much education people attain.
90
what is social exclusion
Achieved by creating barriers so that certain social opportunities and positions are not open to all.
Postsecondary education is a valuable asset that children from richer families are more likely to obtain.
Intergenerational transfer of advantage: more likely to go to college if your parents went
91
what is subjugated knowledge
includes description and explanation of events that the dominant group selectively devalue or ignore other forms of knowledge
exclusion also occurs by disregarding the knowledge that minority groups possess. this is also seen as only obtaining knowledge from dead white men
92
what is credential inflation
The qualification to enter the job market is increasing. which is fueled by professionalization
professionalization is when members of an occupation insist that people earn credentials to enter the occupation
93
what is cultural capital
The stock of learning and skills that increases the chance of securing a superior job.
Cultural capital is scarce and therefore valuable, because it is expensive and difficult to acquire.
94
what is Pedagogic violence
Bourdieu’s term for teachers’ application of punishments intended to discourage deviation from the dominant culture.
Pedagogic violence requires that students be treated as “docile bodies” (Foucault).
In other words, this suggests that pedagogic violence occurs when educational institutions imposed strict control over students, shaping them into compliant and obedient subjects rather than empowering them to question, challenge, and engage critically with the material they are taught
example of pedagogic violence is school corporal punishment
95
what is the Reproduction of the Existing Stratification System
Refers to social processes that ensure that offspring enter a rank or class similar or identical to that of their parents.
Research consistently finds that such social supports are part of how class advantage is transmitted.
96
what is the Hidden curriculum
The hidden curriculum in school teaches obedience to authority and conformity to cultural norms.
Staying in school requires accepting the terms of the hidden curriculum.
97
what is Concerted cultivation
The middle-class parenting style that systematically organizes and directs children’s time to activities that prepare them for success in school.
Concerted cultivation is in contrast to the parenting style of working- and lower-class families (maybe that is why they tend to be less successful)
98
what is natural growth
The parenting style of working- and lower-class families that leaves children largely to their own devices, except when parents demand obedience to authority.
99
what is testing and tracking
Testing and tracking maintain social inequalities.
IQ tests sort students, who are then channelled into stratified classrooms based on test scores. Often, results are due to classrooms stratified by socio-economic status, race, and ethnicity instead of academic ability.
100
according to the sociologist, what does IQ reflect
Most sociologists believe that IQ reflects social standing in great part because all that IQ tests can ever measure is acquired proficiency with a cultural system.
101
what are the two factors in IQ test result
1. How effectively an individual absorbs what his or her environment offers.
2. How closely his or her environment reflects what the test includes.
102
what is self-fulling prophecy
- Can influence a person’s life chances.
- and students who are minority group members are intellectually inferior, and treat them as such.
- Students who are treated as inferior may come to feel rejected by teachers, other classmates, and the curriculum.
- Some of them eventually reject academic achievement as a goal.
- Discipline problems, ranging from apathy to disruptive and illegal behaviour, can result.
103
what is the feminist perspective in the prospects and challenges for education
Women currently receive more than 60 percent of university degrees awarded annually.
Women now exceed men in years of completed schooling.
However, men remain more likely to complete programs that lead to high pay.
104
what is the history behind the definition of religion
Historically “religion” has been difficult to define.
Definitions generally suffer from two major deficiencies
the first major deficiency is they are too broad and would include social phenomena that are clearly not recognizable as religions
the second major deficiency is They are too narrow and include only religions with certain qualities
105
what is the three categories
1. substantive definition
2. functionalist
3. social constructionist
106
what is the functionalist definition of religion
- Based on what religion does and how it works in a social or psychological system
Religion is a set of tools to act on and interpret the world
the social function includes: coherence, social order, defense of group interest
the Psychological function includes: providing stories, symbols, ritual
107
what are some other functional definition of religion
- “a unified set of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them.” – Emile Durkheim
- “religion is a set of symbolic forms and acts which relate man to the ultimate condition of his existence.’ – Robert Bellah
- “A system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic.” – Clifford Geertz
108
what are the Criticism of functionalist definitions
- they are too broad
- Many of these definitions could be applied to American nationalism
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what is Substantive definitions of religion
- Substantive definition entail defining religion in terms of what it believes.
- In these types of definitions it is the content that defines a religion.
- All religions should share common patterns and content. Typically includes some kind of view that religions embrace God, gods, a transcendent realm
- Herbert Spencer “religion is the recognition that all things are manifestations of a Power which transcends our knowledge.”
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what is the problems with substantive definitions
- Substantive definitions are often seen as too exclusive
- They may miss religious systems that perhaps don’t make reference to transcendence or spirits or gods
- The variety of religions and religious beliefs makes this type of definition nearly useless.
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what is social Constructivist
- Generally social constructivists see religions as too diverse for a single definition to encompass. Instead they look at religion as a social construct and look at the process by which a system of beliefs comes to be called a religion
- Generally view religion as merely emergent from social systems
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what is the problem with problems with constructivist views
- Religions clearly play and important social role and can affect social change
- Raises a question of how social change because religion can happen if religion is merely something that emerges from a society and therefore reflects it.
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what is the association between Karl Marx and Deprivation theory
- Marx’s society was changing because of capitalism and industrialization
- social stratification:
Proletariat and bourgeoisie
Capitalism was fundamentally alienating to workers
Ruling class values predominated over other class values
Religion propagated ruling class values
Christianity’s promise of the afterlife made living conditions seem livable:
Marx called religion “the opium of the people,” stressing how it often tranquilizers the underprivileged into accepting their lot in life.
Church authorities often support gender and class inequality, But religiously inspired protests against inequality often erupts from below.
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why did marx believe religion will be wiped out
Marx believed religion would fade away because it was part of what made economic oppression possible
since capitalism was doomed to destruction. Religion would have no place in materialistic, advanced, socialist societies
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who is Emile Durkheim
- Religion for Durkheim is an inherently social activity that binds people together
- Not produced by a supernatural power – it’s a psychological state
- Religion would collapse with the coming of modernity
- Religion plays a part in the production of social order:
Provides socially agreed upon values and norms
AND
Ritualized experience of ‘collective effervescence’
he believe all aspects of religion are product of society
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what is durkheim view on religion change
- Believed religion was in retreat and traditional forms of religious expression were in decline
- As religion retreats it would be replaced by the “cult of the individual” ( individualism mindset)
- Medieval society was oriented towards the collective, the survival of the village:
the result were The common good, Disrupted by the rise of capitalism, People started to see themselves (ostensibly) more as individuals and less as part of a whole.
- Respect for the dignity and rights of the individuals would be a necessary replacement for religious beliefs.
- If individualism were left unchecked it would result in the disintegration of a smooth-functioning society.
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what is the flaws with Durkheim definition
- Religion is an interdependent system of beliefs and practices regarding things which are sacred, that is to say, set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite all those who follow them in a single moral community called a church.” The concept of church is added to the concept of the sacred and to the system of beliefs in order to differentiate religion from magic, which does not necessarily involve the consensus of the faithful in one church.
- Durkheim never tries to define what is sacred other than to say that it is the opposite of what is profane (which he does not define either).
- Durkheim does not include the supernatural (superhuman powers) because he thinks there are “primitive” religions that lacked them.
- Believed Buddhism lacked reference to the supernatural. (which is incorrect)
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what is max Weber perspective on religion change
max weber stressed the way religion can contribute to social change
in the Protestant Ethic and spirit of capitalism, Weber made a connection between the rise of capitalism and meaning people attached to religious ideas, such as the need to prove intense wordly activity through displays of industry, punctuality and frugality in everyday life
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what is rationalization
Max Weber believed that capitalism and modernity would lead to rationalization of everyday life.
( Institutions, actors, become governed by processes of efficiency, organization and bureaucracy)
- Rationalization would lead to disenchantment
- Rationalization would lead to materialist explanations
- As religion becomes unnecessary to explain things it should disappear
- Not a good thing or a bad thing, but basically inevitable.
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what is the Peter Berger on symbolic interactionism
Society is the product of humans and humans are the product of their society. according to the Berger we live in a world of our own making, generally he believes people doesn’t care about religion like the afterlife. they care about their day-to-day life
-social construction of reality
- humans and their social world exist together in a dialectical relationship
( society is the product of humans
humans are the product of their society
society is both her product of human inventiveness and shapes human experience and understanding )
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what is religion as a sacred canopy
- religion also helps us make sense of the world
- religion gives us ultimate security and permanent, calling religion the “sacred canopy”
- religion makes life livingable and understandable
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what is market theory
( Stark and iannaccone)
A religious economy consists of all the religious activity going on in a society
- believe religion operates the same way economy operate, as it replies on supply and demands
- Shifts the focus from the demand side (what people are thought to need) to supply side (under what conditions are religious firms able to create demand)
- Are these free markets, or are they markets where the state sets up a relative monopoly
-to the degree that the state is involved it tends to set up religious monopolies
- If the religious economy is unregulated it will tend to be very pluralistic (many religious firms active in the market)
- Pluralism inhibits new religious firms from gaining market share
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what is the Dynamics of the religious marketplace (Stark and Iannaccone)
Religious regulation and monopolies create lethargic religions
Because of the history of state support for religion in Europe, religious decline has been marked.
The United States has never had a state religion
This allows more vital religions to thrive
This has created a very vital and varied religious landscape in America
American religious pluralism is part of what allowed Mormonism to emerge.
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what are extra info about market theories
Rational choice theorists believe that religious pluralism fosters religious vitality
More and more religious consumers are induced into participating by the variety of religious products that satisfy their needs and wants (Smith et al. 1998)
Monopoly vs Competition example.
Single fast food chain – only attracts a small number of customers who might want a particular kind of fast food – say burgers (nothing for those who like fish, chicken, vegan etc…)
Multiple fast food chains – multiple brands drives interest in fast food generally and as more people try it they the customer base grows larger
Europe is like the single fast-food chain
America is like the seconds example
A decline in religion should be unlikely as long as the religious marketplace is unregulated (Stark and Finke 2000)
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what is Secularization thesis
Religious institutions, actions, and consciousness are on the decline worldwide and will one day disappear altogether.
In medieval and early modern Europe, the Church was the centre of life in both its spiritual and its worldly dimensions.
In contrast, a few hundred years later, Weber remarked on how the world had become thoroughly “disenchanted.”
By the turn of the twentieth century, he said, scientific and other forms of rationalism were replacing religious authority.
He and many others, including Durkheim, Marx, and Comte, subscribed to what came to be known as the secularization thesis, undoubtedly the most widely accepted argument in the sociology of religion until the 1990s.
In other words,- caused by modernization. it is the belief that religious institutions, actions and consciousness are not declining worldwide and will one day disappear altogether
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what is the revised secularization thesis
Well into the 21st century, religion is still around and plays an important role in many societies.
So the traditional secularization theory can’t be entirely correct
Holds that an overall trend toward the diminishing importance of religion is unfolding in different ways throughout the world.
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what is sect
usually form by breaking away from established religions because of disagreement about church doctrine. sects are less integrated into society and less bureaucratized than churches are
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what is new religions movement movement (nRM or cults)
groups headed by charismatic leaders with a unique religious vision that rejects mainstream culture and society
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what are the three outcomes experiences of sects and NRM
1. they may disappear
2. The group persists, but in the process becomes more church-like.
3. They may become institutionalized.
