PSYCH 282 midterm 2 Flashcards
what is natural selection
when nature and environment determines the favourable traits
what is artificial selection
when a human determines the favourable traits
what is shaping
reinforcement of the gradual step close to the target behavior. In other words, Differential reinforcement of successive
approximations of a target behaviour
what is the shaping guidelines
- Define target behavior
- Determine whether shaping is the most appropriate procedures: shaping might not be the best producers if the behavior is put of the individual natural behavior
- Identity the starting behavior
- Choosing the shaping steps
- Choose the reinforcer
- Differentially reinforces successive approximations. only reinforce in the forward direction, do not reinforcer previous successful behavior
- Move through the shaping steps at a proper pace
what are tips for shaping
- reinforces in small steps
- uses continuous reinforcement
- provide immediate reinforcement , don’t wait to see if they will do more
- provide small or conditioned reinforcers to prevent satiation
- skip ahead when possible, so if later behavior occurs and reinforce it
- back up when necessary, when there hasn’t been a behavior to reinforce
- following successful shaping,move to intermittent schedules or reinforcement to avoid extinction
what can be used to mark behavior
After completing the behavior quickly provide the reinforcement to determine the desired behavior. A clicker can be used to immediately conditionally reinforce consequences if provided and this prevents accidental reinforcement of other behavior
what is superstitious behavior
behavior that occurs even though it does not produce a consequence. Making the
wrong association with the behavior and consequence
can an individual accidentally shape a problem behavior
The accidental shaping of problem behavior, the unknowingly using differential reinforcement of successive approximations
- child tantrums or other problem behavior
- parents yelling/nagging can negatively reinforce
- showing off
- dog begging for food
what is verbal behavior
learning to speak. behavior is shaped and maintained by mediated consequence
what is prompt(ing)
it is a stimulus/event that increases the likelihood a person engaging in the correct behavior at the correct time. the stimulus/event controls a response
what is response prompt
the behavior of another person evokes the desired response in the presence of the discriminative stimulus. (discriminative stimulus is the antecedent stimuli that has stimulus control over the behavior becasue the behavior has been reliably reinforced in the presence of the stimulus)
what are the four types of response prompt
- verbal
- physical
- gestural
- modeling
what is verbal prompt
The Verbal behaviour of another person results in correct behaviour of the trainee
ex: telling a music student what note to play on the piano
what is gestural prompt
A physical movement or gesture of another person that leads to the correct
behaviour
ex: Pointing to the correct musical note on the piano
what is modeling prompt
Person demonstrates the target behaviour for the learner
ex: , Playing the correct note on the piano as a demonstration for the student
what is physical prompt
A person physically assists the learner to engage in the correct behaviour
ex: Physically guiding the student’s hand on the piano to play the correct note
what is stimulus prompt
it involves change in the stimulus whether it be the addition or the removal of a stimulus to make a correct response more likely
ex: in order to encourage someone to push a button, you could make it big and a bright color
what are the two types of stimuli prompts
- within-stimulus prompt
- extra-stimulus prompt
what is within-stimulus prompt
an aspect/dimension of the stimulus is changed to add. drawing attention to a stimulus to help others identify the stimulus.
ex: you are trying to teach your child what button to push in an emergency. If you colored that button red
what is extra-stimulus prompt
a separate stimulus is added to aid discrimination
ex: drawing a batter box to help player knows where to stand during the game
what is fading
transferring the discriminative control of one stimulus (s1) to another itmulu (s2) by gradually eliminating s1 in the presence of s2
it is shifting the discriminative control of one stimulus to another stimulus
ex: train birds to hop in the feeder if the light is red, then pair the light and tone before they hop in the feeder. shifting what prompt their behavior
what are the two type of fading
- prompt delay
- prompt /stimulus fading
what is prompt delay
it is gradually delaying the delivery of the prompt. it provides opportunity for an unprompted response to occur. so an individual can engage in a behavior without prompting
what is prompt/stimulus fading
gradually removing the prompt or stimulus
ex: removing the most invasive prompt such as physically in the baseball example, using verbal and when the behavior occurs without the physically prompt then eventually removing the verbal prompt
how is prompting and fading used to study
antecedent -> behavior -> consequence
what is behavior chain
most behavior are actually complex combinations of simpler behavior in a particular order
A complex behaviour consisting of two or more
component behaviours that occur together in a
sequence
ex: ex: playing a piano as playing one notes is one behavior. to play a song to play numerous notes
what is task analysis
breaking down an element into component stimulus
prior to chaining, the subject must be capable of doing each component
what is the difference between shaping and behavior chain
the difference between shaping and behavior chain is shaping the earlier is irrelevant if we arrive on the target goal. While the behavior chain are all the steps are relevant
what is forward chaining
- reinforce the achievement of first component, that is done reliably
- After performing the first component reliability then reinforce the first component then following component
- then reinforce the first component, second component and the following component
- and so on
why is forward chaining impractical
it i impractical because it requires the reinforcement of each component
what is backward chaining
start the behavior at end
1. requires performance of last component and reinforce
2. add the next-to-last component and reinforce until smooth and prompts have been faded
3. and so on
what are important component of backward chaining
- required terminal reinforcement
- a prompt or faded may be needed to elicit new component
- Requires less prompting than forward chaining
what is total task presentation
is using prompting to get the learner to perform the whole chain from start to finish, using prompting
using graduated guidance
ex: if a toddler is learning to wash their hand, the parents can physically take them through the process of washing their hands. Then eventually you can use gesture prompting and eventually less invasive prompting
what we need to consider with this method is
- task complexity
- leaner ability
-teacher ability
what are the other types of prompt
- written prompt
- picture prompt
- video modelling
3.self-instruction
what are long-term considerations in teaching an individual
However, if a learned chain is too long, responding
may decrease over time due to Weak conditional reinforcers and Weak terminal/primary reinforcers
what are remedies of the long-term consideration
- Use a stronger terminal reinforcer
- Shorten the chain
- Highlight natural rewards the chain provides (if any)
- Intermittently reinforce smaller sections of the chain
what is the functional assessment process
- identity and define a target behavior that needs to be increased or decreased
- Initiate baseline data collection
- complete functional assessment by hypothesizing about antecedent and consequences
- develop and implement treatment
- evaluate the effectiveness of treatment and its implementation. was the treatment effective
if the treatment was effective begin to promote maintenance and generalization (reinforced intermittently and apply strategies to foster generalization)
if the treatment was not effective check for treatment fidelity. if the treatment was implemented correctly . if it was not implemented correctly retrain staff, adjust components and/or procedures
if it was implemented correctly, return to step 3
what is antecedent (stimulus)
it is when, where, with whom and in what circumstances or situation does the behavior occur
ex: contextual stimuli, preceding behaviors and circumstances, time of day)
what is behavior
-problem behaviors
- alternative behaviors
-relevant variable (ex: intensity, latency, topography etc)
what is consequences
for both problem and alternative behavior, you have to assess the social and environmental (automatic) consequences. so you can consider the schedule of reinforcement, magnitude of reinforcement, immediacy of reinforcement
what i the categories of reinforcement (functions of problem behavior)
- social positive reinforcement
- social negative reinforcement
- automatic positive reinforcement
-automatic negative reinforcement
what is social positive reinforcement
- it is mediated by others
-attentions, praise, reactions, activites, things
what is social negative reinforcement
- also mediated by others
- it is escape from aversive task (outbursts result in termination of school work), interaction (anger displays get a partner to stop arguing), physical stimulation (a parent’s nagging gets a teenager to turn down the stereo)
what is automatic negative reinforcement
This reinforcement is a natural consequence of a behavior meaning it is not mediated by others
it can be relief from anxiety, fear, aversive stimulation , and aversie environmental stimuli
what is automatic positive reinforcement
when you do something that results in the desired outcome of something good being added.
sensory stimulus, environmental stimuli and events
what are the type of assessment
- indirect (informant) assessment
- direct observation assessment
- functional /experimental analysis
what is indirect (informant) assessment
- behavioural interview
- rating scales and questionnaire
- low reliability, biased, inaccurate and incomplete
- instead it is useful as a starting point
what is direct observation assessment
- descriptive A-B-C recording
- checklist recording of A-B-C
- interval recording of A-B-C
-we need to consider reactivity, practical and ethical feasibility, recruiting informants
what is functional/experimental analysis
this is not a treatment, it is a type of assessment
- manipulate variables to demonstrate a functional relationship
replication is key
manipulate antecedents and consequences
observes changes in behavior and replicate
what are the two types of functional analysis
- hypothesis testing: test hypothesis from descriptive assessment
2.exploratory: test a range of possible function
what are the functional assessment condition
test condition: present EO and deliver reinforcer for problem behavior
control condition: present AO and do not deliver reinforcer for problem behavior
Test and control conditions by function:
- attention
- tangible
- escape
- automatic reinforcement
what is an exploratory FA
- Separation in the data (elevated data) in one test condition – indicates function
- Data elevated in all test conditions – indicates multiple functions or automatic reinforcement
- Extended alone conditions – elevated data indicates
automatic reinforcement
what is hypothesis testing
Separation in the data between the test and control
conditions
what is extinction
it is the procedures of withholding reinforcers that maintain a behavior
what is functional treatment to extinction
it is based on functional assessment information. alter antecedents and/or consequence in the functional assessment
what is nonaversive treatment
do not involves punishment procedures
what are similarities between functional and non aversive treatment
extinction, differential reinforcement and antecedent manipulation work together
These treatments are the first choice for treating an undesirable behavior. however most restrictive treatment are used if functional and averise treatment doesn’t work
what are some important considerations to functional and aversive treatment
- have you identified the reinforcer
- is it even possible to eliminate reinforcer
- is it safe to use extinction (emotional response, extinction burst, behavioural variability)
- can you apply extinction consistently
- do you have a method to promote generalization and maintenance
what reinforcement is vulnerable to extinction
continuous reinforcement
what reinforcement is resistant to extinction
intermittent reinforcement
what is generalization
conduct extinction in all environment that the problem behavior may occur
what is maintenance
conduct extinction any times the problem behavior occur
what is differential reinforcement
it is operant training procedures in which some behavior is systematically reinforce and others are not. it is extinction and reinforcement together
what are differential reinforcement
- differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL)
- differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH)
- differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)
- differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA)
what is differential reinforcement of low rates
behavior is reinforced if you don’t exceed this certain response under this amount of time in a given period. So we should see a decrease in the number of response
ex: reinforce pigeon peck only after 5 sec since the last peck, nothing less than five second
This might produce superstition behavior because it can encourage doing a certain action to be reinforced. for example a pigeon might think they need to spin around to be reinforced when it is actually them pecking. This meant to reduce rates of behavior
how to use DRL
- . Determine if DRL is appropriate procedure.
* i.e., decrease behaviour, but not eliminate it! - Determine an acceptable level of the behaviour.
- Decide to implement full-session or spacedresponding DRL.
- Inform the client about the procedure & criterion
for reinforcement. - Provide feedback on performance
what is differential reinforcement of high rates
behavior is reinforced if you respond for AT LEAST a certain number of response
ex: if a pigeon has pecked at least 5 times within 10 second
This is useful when the goal in increasing a behavior
what is differential reinforcement of other behavior
reinforced is given if the a certain behavior doesn’t not happen for a period time
ex: if a pigeon doesn’t peck after 10 sec reinforcement is given
This is meant to eliminate the rates of behavior, it is useful when extinction is not an option and reinforcers are intrinsic to the behavior
how to use differential reinforcement of other behavior
- define a target behavior to increase and decrease
- choose a reinforcer for DRO
- Choose the initial DRO interval (how long they shouldn’t perform the behavior before they reviewed the reinforcement
- eliminate the reinforcer for the problem behavior and deliver the reinforcer for the absence of the problem behavior
- reset the interval if the problem behavior occur
- gradually increase the interval length
what is the whole interval DRO
The problem must be absent for the whole interval for reinforcement. This is simply DRO
this is basically DRO
what is momentary DRO
The problem must be absent at the end of the interval for reinforcement
what is differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA)
a replacement behavior is reinforced while an undesired behavior is extinguished
ex: if a child is colouring on the wall, the parents encourage the kids to colour on paper
Using DRA is easier if the desirable behavior occurs occasionally or can be prompted similarly to shaping
It can promote creativity as you can differentially reinforced response that have not recently been used
how to use DRA
- define the target behavior to increase and decrease
- identity the reinforcer for the problem behavior
- choose a reinforcer for the desirable behavior
- reinforce desirable behavior immediately and consistently
- extinguish or devalue the reinforcer for the undesirable behavior
- begin to incorporate intermittent schedules of reinforcement for the desirable behavior
how to identify putative reinforcer
- use reinforcers maintaining undesirable behavior
- observe activities that are enjoyable and occur with high probability
- ask question
- conduct preference assessment : we have single stimulus preference assessment, paired stimulus preference assessment, multiple stimulus preference assessment
how to choose reinforcer
- observe
- ask
- test using single stimulus preference assessment, paired stimulus preference assessment, multiple stimulus preference
what is single stimulus preference assessment
potential reinforcers presented individually multiple times in random orderings because we want to ensure there is no environmental factor that contributes to the appealing of the reinforcer
then the percentage of approaches are calculated
what is multiple stimulus
- potential reinforcers are presented in a full array to randomize the order of the reinforcer
- items are removed as they are chosen
- process is repeated with varied item ordering
- items chosen first are likely more reinforcing
what is paired stimulus assessment
potential reinforcer in pairs
- each stimulus is presented with every other stimulus multiple times
- then the percentage of approaches/selection are calculated
what is differential negative reinforcement of alternative behavior
students are negatively reinforced (a perceived aversive stimulus is removed) for engaging in the desired academic task at certain levels of proficiency.
what are Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI):
variation of DRA. behavior that is incompatible with the unwanted behavior is reinforced
Increasing rate of desired behaviour also decreases the
rate of undesired behaviour because the two cannot
occur simultaneously
ex: instead of biting their nails, then do something that requires using your hand and you reward yourself you were doing something else instead of biting your nails
what are Differential Reinforcement of Communication (DRC)
aka functional communication training: a communication response is reinforced to replace the problematic behavior. An individual can ask for their reinforcer
what is controlling stimulus (S)
any antecedent stimulus or event that changes the probability of an operant behavior
there are three types which are Sd, SΔ, Save
what is discriminative stimulus
a stimulus or event that precedes an operant and sets the occasion for its reinforcement
what is extinction stimulus
a stimulus or events that precedes an operant and sets the occasion for its non-reinforcement
what is antecedent control procedures
manipulating controlling stimulus to make desirable more likely and make undesirable less likely
what is the procedures for increasing desirable behavior
- present discriminative stimulus for a desired behavior
- develop new discriminative stimulus by limiting the occurrence of specific behavior to specific situation
- arrange establishing operation for desirable behavior
- decrease response effort for desirable behavior
what is the procedures for decreasing undesirable behavior
- remove the discriminative stimulus for undesirable behavior
2 make the behavior impossible - present abolishing operation for undesirable behavior
- increase response effort and/or delay for undesirable behaviors
- extinguish discriminative stimulus for undesirable behaviour when they can’ be easily avoided
