psych 241 final exam Flashcards
what is intergroup bias
Systematic tendency to perceive one’s own group (the ingroup) more favourably than a group to which one does not belong to (the outgroup).
how are groups defined
they are defined i many ways whether its ethnic, national, religious, gender university, sexual orientation
Cultural context influences which group membership people choose to focus on (e.g. nationality, ethnicity, gender, religious identity, political orientation, etc).
how can bias manifest itself
bias manifest itself in terms of attitude (prejudice), behavior (discrimination) or cognition stereotyping)
what is stereotypes
Generalized belief that links a whole group of people with certain traits or characteristics (e.g., friendliness, intelligence, athleticism, etc.).
which tends to be fixed and oversimplified
what is prejudice
Negative attitudes or feelings toward a certain group and its individual members.
what is discrimination
action or behaviour in favor or against an individual based on their group membership.
E.g., willingness to vote, hire, or help member of group x vs. y.
how does an intergroup emerge in obvious or subtle forms
- obvious forms of bias may emerge in racist slur or derogatory sexist comments
- social norms have led to a decline in such expressions as they are seen as morally wrong
-However, bias is hurtful when people treat cultural differences as problematic, mock another for being different, or exclude others based on their identity.
-Bias may be more subtle in the form of aversive racism or implicit stereotyping or prejudice.
Measuring Explicit Bias: Modern Racism Scale
Over the past few years the government and the media have shown more respect to Blacks than they deserve.
It is easy to understand the anger of Black people in Canada. (R)
Blacks are getting too demanding in their push for equal rights.
Discrimination against Blacks is no longer a problem in Canada
what is aversive racism
A form of racism that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalise
Studies have shown the discrepancy in self-reported attitudes and behaviour.
what study cooperates with aversive racism
white participants were assessed for racial attitudes. the black or white candidates were evaluated with either strong, ambiguous or weak qualification the result was the level of explicit bias decreased over time however white participants did not discriminate against black relative to white candidates when the candidates’ qualifications were clearly strong or weak, but they did discriminate when the appropriate decision was more ambiguous. Theoretical and practical implications are considered
what is implicit bias
Stereotypes or prejudice considered unconscious or implicit when people express them without awareness and without being able to control their response
Implicit prejudice and stereotypes broadly represent mental association between a group and feelings or beliefs.
measuring implicit bias: implicit measure
Several tools used to measure implicit bias including the IAT (Implicit Association Task), evaluative priming, GNAT (Go/No-Go Association Task)
People may be implicitly biased even when their explicit responses are unbiased.
are we biased according to several tools
- if measured with modern racism scale, we are not biased
-if measured with IAT, yes we are biased
how does implicit bias predict behaviour
Over a hundred studies have shown that implicit attitudes and stereotypes predict a variety of behaviours
- Implicit attitudes predicts greater seating distance and more negative nonverbal behaviours.
- Implicit biases predict medical doctor’s recommendations, evaluations of a lawyer’s performance, and ratings of one’s work.
- Implicit attitudes predict job discrimination toward women and ethnic minorities in real world contexts.
- Research may need to be considered vis a vis the replication crisis
is there a debate to the extent of implicit bias representing one’s true attitude or cultural beliefs
yes, there is a debate to the extent to which these represent one’s true attitudes or cultural belief
does implicit bias predict behavior well
implicit bias predict behavior often better than self-report measures
what other measures are used to capture implicit biases
shooter bias, weapon/tool identification task
what is the shooter bias
it is a form of implicit racial bias which refers to the tendency among the police to shoot black civilians more often than white civilians
what is ERP and fMRI
these neuroscientific measures are used to study implicit biases
ERP and fMRI studies have shown that people perceive greater threats from outgroups than ingroup members.
Studies using fMRI show that people dehumanize certain outgroups
what is the stereotype content
The stereotypes we have of different groups can range along two dimensions of competence and warmth.
As a result, we have different emotional reactions to different types of groups.
the graph shows the x axis will be competence and the y axis is warmth
Pity:
- elderly
- disabled
Pride:
- student
- america
Disgust:
- homeless
- drug addict
Envy:
-rich
-professionals
what parts of the brain is activated with the different emotional reaction
the mPFC, part of the social brain and mentalizing network is activated except the disgust. theses activated the amygdala and insula, indicative of a negative, visceral response
what is sexism
gender stereotypes are distinct
They are not only descriptive, but also prescriptive (i.e. they tell people what they should do or be).
Both men and women across many cultures believe that men are competent and independent, while women are warm and expressive
what is the social role theory
Stereotypes come from roles and behaviors that societal pressures may impose on a particular group.
Stereotypes attached to groups are often a function of historical and culturally embedded social constraints.
what is magnified in the perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women
Small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women.
Gender differences tend to get exaggerated and generalized.
Perceived group differences on various traits were significantly greater than actual difference between sexes
how does influence of gender and social roles occur in three steps
- Combination of biological and social factors influence division of labour in the first place.
- People behave in ways that fit the roles they play.
- These behavioural differences provide a continual basis for social perception that men are dominant and women are domestic ‘by nature’.
what is gender backlash
Violation of gender stereotypes can result in social and economic backlash
Studies find that agentic female candidates less liked and less hired for managerial jobs that require interpersonal skills relative to identically agentic men.
When qualifications are ambiguous, women are seen as less competent than men but equally liked as men; however, when sufficiently qualified for a job, women are less liked than men.
what are the attitude toward homosexual
Attitudes toward homosexuals quite varied across history and geography
- Homosexuality removed from list of mental disorders only in 1973.
- Fundamentalist Christian attitudes correlated with prejudice toward homosexuals.
- Persons 40% less likely to be interviewed after indicating volunteer work for gay organization.
what is the bias against the physically and mentally handicapping
Bias against the physically and mentally handicapped long standing problem.
- Afflicted people labeled witches and killed; exterminated under the final solution; label used to justify executions in other places.
- Some attempts to improve the conditions of these groups, but still much variability in bias around the world.
what is the attitude toward obese individuals
Attitudes toward obese individuals also tend to be negative (especially for overweight women
Held as personally responsible, therefore often internalized.
- For example, obese perceived to be lazy and offered less support for university education.
- A person sitting beside an overweight woman is judged more negatively than a person sitting beside an average weight woman, even when strangers.
what is the source of intergroup bias
1.motivation: realistic conflict
2. motivation: identity, system justification, uncertainty reduction
3. cognition: social categorization, biased processing
4. individual difference
5. culture
what is the economic perspective to intergroup bias
- Competition for material resources can lead to intergroup bias.
- Scapegoating when dominant groups become frustrated and displace aggression onto relatively powerless, visible, and disliked outgroups.
- Poor economic conditions appear to be related to increased hatred toward outgroups. for example, economic conditions in the US between 1882-1930 correlated with lynchings of Blacks.
- Experiments reveal that economic threat does not lead to increased prejudice against all outgroups, but specifically those perceived as a threat to economic resources.
what is the realistic conflict theory
Competition for scarce resources between groups breeds prejudice, stereotypes, and hostility
what study cooperates with this theory
- Classic Robbers Cave study using 22 well adjusted, middle class, White fifth graders – divided into two groups (Eagles & Rattlers).
- Each independently engaged in activities that built ingroup unity.
- Then, groups were introduced for tournaments comprising various activities.
- Name calling, fights, theft, and other anti-social acts against other teams; self-glorifying comments about own team members.
- Simple non-competitive activities are not sufficient to reduce tension.
- However, superordinate goals reduced prejudice, name calling, and fostered friendships between the two teams.
what are the results for the realistics theory study
- Competition between two groups is sufficient for intergroup hostility and not necessarily differences in background, histories, etc.
- Superordinate goals that require groups to work together (not just putting them together) helps reduce hostility between them.
- Resource conflict doesn’t have to be real; it may be perceived or subjective.
- Realistic conflict may underlie various conflicts.
what is the motivational perspective
Humans live, work, play, and fight in groups.
A fundamental motive is needed to belong and affiliate.
-Serves the basic motive of self-protection.
- Also can generate readiness for “us vs. them” mentality.
what is the minimal group paradigm
This cooperates with motivational perspective
Paradigm in which researchers create groups based on arbitrary criteria and then examine how members of these ‘minimal groups’ behave toward each other
it is a method for investigating the minimal conditions required for discrimination to occur between group
what is social identity theory (SIT)
Our self concept and self esteem are not only derived from our personal identity and accomplishments, but also from the status and accomplishments of groups to which we belong
the result of the social identity theory is people favour ingroups over outgroups
according to the social identity people still show bias even if
a) they are explicitly told they are classified in an arbitrary way (ex: coin toss )
b) they are never at a personal advantage regardless of how they divide the point
3) they never meet member of any of the group members
what has social identity theory showed me
studies have shown that by giving preference to ingroup members, people boost the group’s standing and elevate self-esteem
- People allowed to engage in ingroup favouritism showed higher self-esteem than those not allowed to engage in ingroup favouritism.
- Watching one’s team win a game led to increased self-esteem and more optimistic predictions about the future.
Some studies have also shown derogating outgroup members can boost self-esteem
what study correlates with social identity theory
For example, participants received positive or negative feedback on their abilities and were then asked to evaluate a Jewish or non-Jewish job candidate using her resume, photo, and a video of the interview.
what is system justification
In contrast to motive for ingroup favouritism, system justification theory argues for ideological motive to justify the status quo even if it negatively impacts one’s own group.
Evidence in different domains
- For example, women paid themselves on average 18% less than men did for the exact same quality work.
- People may vote for policies that go against their best interests.
- People may vote for policies that go against their best interests.
what is uncertainty reduction
We are motivated to know who we are and how we relate to others – we like to feel relatively certain about things in life.
Social identification one way to reduce uncertainty by offering prototypes and defining our place with respect to others.
finding uncertainty and intergroup
- people identify with groups more strongly under times of uncertainty
identification especially likely with groups that are normative, homogenous, intolerant of dissent, and governed by a more ideologically orthodox system.
what is the cognitive perspective
intergroup biases results from the way in which we process information about people
what is social categorization
The classification of people into groups on the basis of various attributes
For example, categorization of race and gender occurs at 100 and 150 milliseconds respectively.
Social categorization adaptive and helpful in processing complex world.
However, categorization is problematic because it can lead to overestimation of between group differences and underestimation within group differences
- Biologists and anthropologists find more genetic variation within race than between, yet race assumed to be biologically distinct.
- When placed in ‘minimal groups’ participants assume their beliefs are more similar to those of another ingroup member and more different from outgroup members.
when is stereotypes more likely
stereotypes especially likely when we are tired, cognitively loaded or low on mental energy
For example, people more likely to make stereotypical judgments when they were at a low point of their circadian rhythm (i.e. ‘morning people’ at night and ‘night people’ in the morning
what is the outgroup homogeneity effect
Social categorization can lead to outgroup homogeneity effect
what is the outgroup homogeneity effect
Tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups.
why does the outgroup homogeneity effect occur
- we often have more contact with ingroup members to notice divergent opinions
- we do not treat ingroup member as representatives of the whole; we think of it as idiosyncrasies of the individual
how does stereotypes influences how we communicate process information and interpret event
yes
- Participants rated drawings of ambiguous behaviour as more aggressive and less playful when performed by a Black child than White child.
- Although Ps told story of an Australian football player that included both stereotype consistent and inconsistent information only included stereotypic information by the time it was told to the 4th person.
what is self-fulfilling prophecies
Sometimes our stereotypes create a self-fulfilling prophecy by leading us to act toward outgroup members in ways that encourage the very behaviour we expect
For example, participants interviewing Black candidates tended to sit farther away, paused, and ended the session earlier than when the candidate was White.
- White applicants who were treated the same as the White or Black candidates from before behaved in similar ways to that observed in the previous study.
what is subtyping
Explaining away exceptions to a stereotype by creating a subcategory that differs from the group as a whole
tend to be more critical of exception to the rules than those who align with the stereotype
what is social dominance orientation SDO
Extent to which one sees hierarchy of groups and desires their ingroup to dominate over others
DO related to beliefs in social ideologies and policies that support group based hierarchy (e.g. civil rights, war, social programs,
what is right-wing authoritarianism (RWA)
Extent to which one values conventionalism, authoritarian aggression and submission
high RWAs shows especially strong prejudice toward deviant groups but not necessarily subordinate group
what is the motivation to control prejudice
Expressions of intergroup biases may be influenced by the extent to which one is motivated to control prejudice
- People may be externally motivated to control prejudice by not wanting to appear prejudiced in front of others
OR
- People may be internally motivated to control prejudice by not wanting to be prejudiced because they personally think it is wrong to do so
what is the intergroup bias in behavior (discrimination)
- people strongly differ in biased behavior
- IAT and personality measure have offered mixed result
what part of the Brian is related to the social brain
- DMPFC
- right temporal parietal junction
- precuneus posterior cingulate
- anterior temporal pole
- inferior frontal gyrus
- posterior superior temporal sulcus
what part of the brain is related to the self-referential
- MPFC
- PCC
what does neuroanatomy measures
it measures objective, stable difference in brain structure or function
EEG: resting states frequency
MRI: voxel based morphometry
can explain stable individual differences in personality and behavior
what does the Baumgartner studies shows about intergroup
Intergroup discrimination associated with increased grey matter in:
-Temporal Parietal Junction (TPJ)
-Dorsomedial Prefrontal Cortex (DMPFC
mediated by a degree of mentalizing
- empathy
TPJ and DMPFC
- shares rich, reciprocal connections
- functional connectivity in decision-making
-part of a mentalizing network
Better mentalizing/ToM = more egalitarian behaviour
what is third-party punishment
it is punishment of a first party (transgressor) which is administered not by a victim of the second party but rather by a third party not directly affected by the transgression. it has been argued that third party punishment are the essence of social norms
what is the white matter integrity
it distinguishes between impaired and unimpaired older adult decision-marker
White matter integrity at TPJ and connectivity between TPJ and DMPFC predict reduced intergroup bias
Non-biased mentalizing mediated both links
Individual differences in intergroup bias are explained by neuroanatomical differences in an interconnected mentalizing system
what are the cultural influences
Socialisation refers to a process by which people learn the norms, rules, and information of a culture or group. intergroup bias is influenced by media and socialization
For example, the manifesto ‘Hutu ten commandments’ published in a popular paper warned of the dangers of Tutsis instigating the genocide.
However, after the genocide, radio programming that promoted intergroup cooperation and communication helped reduce bias.
media message can also influences self-conceptions : For example, women exposed to gender stereotypic TV commercials indicated less interest in being leaders and fewer career aspirations in a follow up task.
what does it entails to being a member of a stigmatized group
Members of stigmatised groups may suffer setbacks in health, wealth, employment prospects, and more. Members of such groups are often aware of the biases others may hold against their group.
how can biases have negative consequences through
- negative health outcomes
- attributional ambiguity
- stereotype threat
what is the negative health outcomes
Research from many parts of the world find that stigmatised groups tend to experience worse health outcomes than advantaged groups or the majority
Perceived discrimination negatively impacts mental and physical health. Subtle biases are also quite detrimental for health and well-being.
Exclusion and marginalisation in society leads to negative mental and physical health outcomes. Similar effects found among ethnic minorities, immigrants, sexual minorities, and the poor.
what is the attributional ambiguity
Stigmatised group members often face dilemma of how to attribute experiences they have
this may impact their experiences of both positive and negative feedback
- black student receiving negative or positive evaluations by a White student experienced change in self-esteem when they were told the White evaluator could not see them, but not when told they could see them.
- White students showed same change in self-esteem after positive and negative feedback irrespective of whether the other person could see them or not.
what are the advantages and disadvantages of attributional ambiguity
advantages: protect self esteem
disadvantages: Stigmatised group members may miss opportunities to improve themselves.
Stigmatised group members may feel less sense of control over their lives which may have consequences on health.
However, these individuals may receive such feedback better if it is clear that they are held to high standards and they have the ability to meet those standards.
what is stereotype threat
Stereotype threat is the fear of being evaluated by or confirming negative stereotypes about one’s group.
what is the impact of stereotypes threat
- Negatively impact performance in a domain of importance; and
- In the long run, lead members of stigmatized groups to disidentify with the domain.
what study cooperate with the stereotype threat
Black and White Stanford undergraduates administered difficult questions from the GRE.
Half told the test was diagnostic of intellectual ability and other half that it was simply a research task.
who is susceptible to the effect of stereotypes effect
Stereotype threat shown to impact performance across a number of target groups and domains
Stereotype threat effects do not require that the target believes the stereotypes – simple awareness can impact individuals.
- Women performed worse than men on a test they were told tends to reveal gender differences, but just as well as men when told the test reveals no gender differences.
- White students performed worse on a math test when reminded of Asians’ proficiency in math.
why does stereotypes threat impact performance
- by triggering physiological arousal
- by getting the individual to suppress thoughts about stereotypes, which can drain cognitive resources, and possibly backfire.
- impairs working memory
-Can facilitate negative thoughts and avoidance of failure as opposed to achieving success
how can the negative effect of stereotypes threat be alleviated
- For example, engaging in self affirmation shown to reduce both race and gender gap.
- By informing targets that the stereotype of their group does not apply in the particular context, negative effects are erased.
- Exposing target individuals to positive role models from their ingroup can help reduce negative effects of stereotype threat.
- Being reminded of other categories to which one belongs that are considered favourable in same domain can help reduce stereotype threat effects.
what are the challenges to reducing prejudices
- Values and beliefs are integral to psychological security.
- Prejudice often serves specific psychological functions for people.
- Established prejudiced views and stereotypes constitute self-perpetuating schemas.
- Some people are unaware of their prejudices and their influences.
what are the dual process view of prejudice
Process 1 (Experiential): Stereotypes and biased attitudes are brought to mind quickly and automatically through a reflexive or experiential process.
Process 2 (Rational): People employ reflective or cognitive processes to regulate or control the degree to which those thoughts and attitudes affect their behavior and judgment.
what limitation do people faces when they attempt to control their biases
- Cognitive control is impaired when judgments of others are made when a person is aroused or upset.
- Regulation of automatically activated thoughts can be difficult when people are pressed for time or distracted.
what is the negative effect of controlling biases
Exerting control in one context makes it more difficult to do so in another.
what is contact hypothesis
suggests that intergroup contact under appropriate conditions can effectively reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members.
ingredient for positive intergroup contact
- Equal status between groups in situation
- Intimate and varied contact that allows people to get acquainted
- Intergroup cooperation toward a superordinate goal
-Institutional support
why does optimal contact create positive change
- reducing anxiety
- fostering empathy
- reducing stereotypes (decategrozing)
what is aggression
Any physical or verbal behavior that is intended to harm another person or persons (or any living thing)
the harm can be physical or physiological
what does aggression require
Aggression requires an intention to harm. it can be a deliberate action or a deliberate failure to act
what is violence
Acts of aggression with more severe consequences
what are the two types of aggression
- affective aggression
- instrumental aggression
what is affective aggression
Harm-seeking done to another person that is elicited in response to some negative emotion
what is instrumental aggression
Harm-seeking done to another person that serves some other goal
ex: reward, momentary reward
what is the motivation to aggression based on the trust game
In the trust game, trust was being rewarded. also punishment feels rewarding when they share the money properly. the same feeling of rewarding of giving is the same as the feeling of afflicting punishment onto others
what is aggressive unconcious
Eros: Freud’s term for what he proposed is the human inborn instinct to seek pleasure and to create
Thantons: Freud’s term for what he proposed is the human inborn instinct to aggress and to destroy
what is Catharsis
it is relieving emotional tension
ex: punching a bag
what is Displacement
The unconscious defense mechanism whereby the mind diverts emotions from their original source to a less threatening, dangerous, or unacceptable one to avoid experiencing anxiety. in other words when we divert our emotion to a less threatening source
what is jung shadow
the dark side of personality can be positive but is mostly negative because it is the hidden and unwanted part of ourselves.
what are the counter to psychodynamics in aggression
- When aggressive actions result in desired attention, specific rewards, or alleviating negative feelings, they become more likely.
- Aggressive actions can create dissonance, which leads to attitude shifts that justify actions.
- in the social learning theory, people learn by watching the actions of others. by watching the model, especially if the model received reward for their action, they are most likely to repeat the action
what is psychoanalytic response to our personality
we have a dark side in our personality and hidden animalistics personality
what is behaviorism to our personality
according to behaviorism we are no different than a pigeon
what is awareness
existence is a bummer however we are aware. This capability and struggle for meaning elevates and unites us
what is the existential bad faith
- it is an escape from the dilemma of existence. meaning we don’t worry about the meaning of life, we don’t try to think for ourselves, don’t examine your life just do what others tell you to do
- Living in bad faith: ignoring the existential questions and ignoring our moral imperative
how do we escape the angst of freedom
according to Erich Fromm and Theodor Adorno
1. impersonal identity
- Conform to a social ideal
-Removes the burden of choice
2. Authoritarianism
- Submission to external power
- Nietzsche’s herd mentality
3. destruction
- The source of angst is the world
- eliminate the world
what are the evolutionary basis for aggression
Male aggressors more likely to obtain resources and attract mates through higher status, thereby increasing odds of reproductive success.
Females from an evolutionary perspective protect offspring and therefore use indirect means.
Social animals can coordinate against other groups
Increased aggression found in step families.
what is the behavioural genetics basic for aggression
- E.g., identical twins show greater overlap in aggression and irritability than fraternal twins or siblings.
- However, twin studies reveal overlap in physical, but not relational aggression.
- Meta-analysis suggests that genetic factors account for an important portion of the variance in aggression.
what is the neurobiology of aggression
Research confirms physiological mechanisms involved in the detection of social threat, the experience of anger, and engaging in aggressive behavior.
what brain region is associated with detection of social threat and unjustified wrongdoing
Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC)
This brain area is active when people detect actions and outcomes that interfere with their goals, including social threats.
what brain region is associated with anger and fear
Hypothalamus and amygdala
this region plays a role in people’s emotional experiences of fear and anger and prepare them for a fight-or-flight response.
Adrenaline (epinephrine) and Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
what brain region is associated with impulse regulation
The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and medial prefrontal cortex help regulate impulses, share connections with the limbic system, and contain serotonin receptors.
what is the association between testosterone and aggression
Development of primary and secondary male sex characteristics
About ~10 times higher concentration in men
Link with aggression is complex
Role in control and inhibition of aggression and sexuality
what is correlation of low 2D:4D to men
associated with more testosterone and to have more masculine traits
- good visual and spatial performance
- athletic achievement
- dominance and masculinity
- sensation seeking and psychoticism
what is the correlation with a higher 2D:4D ratio
- verbal fluency
- emotional problem
- neuroticism
what is the original version of the frustration-aggression hypothesis
Aggression is always preceded by frustration, and that frustration inevitably leads to aggression
what is the revised version of the frustration-aggression hypothesis
suggest that frustration produces an emotional readiness to aggress
what is the situational triggers for aggression
- context
-priming
-culture - physical threat
- psychological threat
what is priming aggressive cognition
Situational cues which prime hostile concepts and feelings can lead to aggression.
what is the weapon effect
The tendency for the presence of firearms to increase the likelihood of aggression, especially when people are frustrated
what study correlate with weapon study
Berkowitz and LePage’s (1967) classic weapons effect study shows that participants became the most aggressive when they were in a condition in which they were both angered and in the presence of a gun and a rifle, administering an especially large number of shocks to another person.
what is the cultural influence in the extent of aggression among national culture
United States: Murder rate is double the world average; aggression used to solve interpersonal conflict; availability of firearms; individualistic
No single set of variables that accounts for a given nation’s violence record.
what is within nations among cultural influence to the extent of aggression within a society
Culture of honor, especially in the United States South and West
Status protection
gang
what is the most reliable provocation of an aggression response
Perception of imminent, intentional physical or verbal attack
what arouse anger and the implus to aggress to protect self-esteem
Insults and social rejection can arouse anger and the impulse to aggress to protect self-esteem.
People high in rejection sensitivity tend to expect, readily perceive, and overreact to rejection with aggressive responses
what is the displaced aggression
directed toward a target other than the source of one’s frustration.
what is the triggered displaced aggression
occurs when someone does not respond to an initial frustration but later responds more aggressively than would be warranted to a second event.
what is anger associated with
- left prefrontal cortex
- approach personality
- reward sensitivity
is moral associated with reducing harm and promoting prosocial behavior
yes, morals are largely concerned with reducing harm and promoting prosocial behaviour. However, moral violations seem to unleash increased aggression
what is morally largely based
Morals are largely based in emotion, preceding cognition
what is the use of aggression
- serves as a purpose
- whether it is proximity or distal functions
what is proximity function to aggression
Aggression is emotion-driven, irrational, harmful, bad for relationships, etc.
what is distal function
Aggression serves to help groups or societies cohere. as aggression is turned on those who might hurt the group
what is altruism punishment
Punishment that has no direct benefit but has significant cost for the punisher. people do this because anger is a proximal cause
looking at the cause what happens as a observer in relation to the moral and aggression
As observer, what we want or value is violated by another individual
looking at the constant what happens as an actor in relation to the moral and aggression
As actor, we feel angst and guilt as our behaviour conflicts with morals and values we cherish and motivates us to a. pre-emptively avoid the behaviour altogether (“better not, I’ll feel bad about this”) and b. repair or address the harm done
Would muting emotion increase aggression and violence?
it relates to these three
1. moral disengagement ( cognitive)
2. oxytocin (anxiolytic)
3. personality ( impaired emotion system)
what is moral disengagement
- Albert Bandura
- Internalized moral codes and values guide us away from aggression and violence
- self-sanction (act of punishing oneself) is caused when aggression and violence conflict with morals
so negative emotions like guilt and shame that motivate behavior change - we can cognitively disengage our morals to allows for immoral act
what is the moral disengagement flowchart
REPREHENSIBLE CONDUCT –> DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS –> VICTIM
what increases oxytocin
- pregnancy, birth
- breastfeeding
- cuddling, hugs
- sex
- sharing, giving
what has oxytocin done
- can be administered intranasally (nasal administration)
- increased trust in the trust game
- increased generosity in the ultimatum game by 80% but have no effect in the dictator game
- improved mind in the eyes
What are the characteristics of oxytocin
- Mechanism appears to be that anxiety is decreased by oxytocin and approach motivation is increased, particularly for valued social stimuli and objects
- So, sometimes, this means increased trust, cooperation, affiliation
- But, it might reduce self-sanctioning emotions and risk-sensitivity, increase prioritizing and aggressively protecting valued vs non valued social stimuli
what is the relationship between oxytocin and aggression in animals
- In prairie voles, oxytocin treatment after birth, enhanced aggression
- In mice, oxytocin decreased aggression towards pups, but increased aggression towards intruders
- In squirrel monkeys, oxytocin is associated with enhanced territorial aggression
- In rats, aggressive tendencies correlate with oxytocin receptor density
what is the relationship between oxytocin and ingroup bias
oxytocin contributes to the development of intergroup bias
what are the effects of oxytocin
it has both positive and negative effects
Hypothesized to promote relationship goals. Including typical strategies for affiliation and social maintenance which can be both positive and negative
what is the dark triad
- morale is largely emotion based. We feel that something is wrong, build the rationality later
- Disengagement from moral emotions should increase aggression and violence.Similar to moral disengagement
- Personality cluster called the dark triad centers on low self-sanctioning (Narcissism: selfishness, lack of empathy, Machiavellianism: self-regard, exploitation, disregard for morality, Psychopathy: harmful to others, impaired empathy, impulsive)
what is the neuroscience of psychopathy
- Impaired emotional system?
- Self-report low levels of negative affect
- Reduced reactivity to negative stimuli. Faces, sounds, images, negative feedback, etc.
- Abnormalities in insula (body sense, disgust) and amygdala (fear, salience)
when does religion increase aggression
It promotes
- divisions between groups and dehumanizes outgroups
- illusions of moral superiority and invulnerability
- irrational thinking
can religion decrease aggression
yes
Armstrong: The core of religion is the golden rule
- Content-free or unadulterated content. A punitive (punishing) god to obey. A benevolent (all-good and all-knowing) to follow. Religion without corrupted aspects
what is the content free or unadulterated content in religious that decrease aggression
- Prime religion before threat: Content free prime
- DV: revenge against unethical company
-Past research demonstrates that primes drive reactions after threat
-Core of compassion reduce defensive reactions
how does god promote intergroup conflict
- Religion is supposed to promote intergroup conflict by cementing tribalism and devaluing non-believers
what is altruism
Desire to help another, to improve their welfare, regardless of whether we derive any benefit. Helping another without conscious regard for one’s self-interest
are all altruistic behavior prosocial behavior
yes, all altruistic behavior is prosocial behavior. but not all prosocial behavior is altruistic behavior
what is prosocial behavior
it is behavior that benefits another person
characterized by
- helping
-giving
- sharing
-cooperating
what are the explanation on why we help others
- evolutionary theory
- social exchange theory
- empathy-altruism hypothesis
what is the evolutionary theory on why we help others
we have the selfish gene
we help others since it has survival advantages such as:
- kin selection: help your kin = help your genes
- reciprocity: help strangers = help your survival chances
what is reciprocal helping
Reciprocity patterns can provide adaptive advantages to individuals and groups
we have the norms of reciprocal. when an individual helps others accept a repayment
it can be found in many species
Requires rlPFC
what is the social exchange theory
- minimax strategy: decision rule
- we unconsciously weigh the benefits and cost of helping someone
- it is suggested that true altruism doesn’t exist because we are always weighing the benefits and cost
what are the benefits of helping based on the social exchange theory
- Make us feel good
-Avoid punishment for breaking social norms
-Social approval of others
-Decrease stress (aversive arousal) of seeing someone in need of help
-Be reciprocated in future – an investment
what are the cost of helping based on the social exchange theory
- physical danger
- pain
-embarrassment - time consuming
what is the empathy-altruism hypothesis
- associated with Daniel Batson
- when we feel empathy for an individual, we will attempt to help them regardless of what we have to gain.
- The motivation to help last longer when empathy is involved
what was the result of the kaite empathy-altruism hypothesis test
The result was the ability to hear if your help was useful to the improvement to Katie misfortune increases the likelihood of helping
People who had no feedback on their help had higher empathy, demonstrating altruism behavior. as they tried to help Katie without anything reward
how is empathy a fragile flower
empathy is high correspond with a socially desirable scale. as people help others because they want to be liked by society
it is easily crushed
what is the bystander effect
A person who witnesses another in need is less likely to help when there are other bystanders present to witness the event; the effect increases as the number of bystanders gets larger.
- More likely to occur when need for help is minor
- Less likely to occur among friends
what was the result from the smoke from the vent study in relation to the bystander effect
People were more likely and faster to report the potential emergency when alone compared to others
why do we fail to help others
- diffusion of responsibility
- Pluralistic ignorance
what is the diffusion of responsibility
A situation in which the presence of others prevents any one person from taking responsibility
the number of bystanders increases, the personal responsibility that an individual bystander feels decreases.
what is Pluralistic ignorance
A situation in which individuals rely on others to identify a norm but falsely interpret others’ beliefs and feelings, resulting in inaction
if we see that others are not responding, it makes us less likely to take action.
what is the result from the analysis of the bystander effect
There is a strong effect for passive bystander and non-instructed bystander. However when there is active bystander, it will increase the likelihood of helping
what are the steps of helping
When encountering a potential emergency situation, people must take multiple steps in deciding whether to offer help. At each step, we can make a judgment about ourselves or the situation that prevents us from helping.
- attention: notice the event –> failing to notice the event due to time pressure or distraction –> no intervention and no help is given
- interpret the event as an emergency –> assuming there is no real danger or threat –> Pluralistic ignorance –> no intervention and no help is given
- take responsibility –> believing someone else will take responsibility –> diffusion of responsibility –> no intervention and no help is given
- decide how to help –> not knowing what to do, this is feeling unskilled and unqualified –> no intervention and no help is given
- give help –> danger to self , legal concern, embarrassment. the cost of helping is too high –> no intervention and no help is given
- intervene and offer assistance
are we selfish people or selfless people first
our first impulse defines us, self control reveal our basic nature (first instinct)
Are we selfish?
Self-control is necessary to restrain our base impulses towards temptation
Are we prosocial?
Self-control is necessary to restrain blind altruism to enable personal achievement
what are the evidence for our selfish nature
Right Lateral PFC associated with self-control
If you could turn off the rlPFC, then people should be less controlled, more selfish
in the Ultimatum game
Rejection of offer is self-control over selfish greed
rTMS knockout self control increase selflessness in the Ultimatum game
are we prosocial human first
we are social creatures, we are more social than other creatures. Sacrifice for others with no personal gain (reputation) nor gain for the group, according to the selfish theories it is irrational
what is the result of the spontaneous giving and calculated greed
subjects who reach their decisions more quickly are more cooperative. Furthermore, forcing subjects to decide quickly increases contributions, whereas instructing them to reflect and forcing them to decide slowly decreases contributions
are we selfish or selfless
we can be both as our personality and environment has a major contribution
for personality traits is dependent on
-Prosocial traits:Agreeableness? Extraversion?
-Selfish traits:Power? Achievement motivation
for the environment: we look at the social cues and social norms
why does people need self-control
- Some may need self-control to curb greed and be able to sacrifice and care for others
-Some may need self-control to stop sacrificial altruism or submission and assert themselves and their personal goals
-Some may need self-control for both of these outcomes
Altruism vs Egoism
Push and pull of motivation toward prosocial vs selfish behaviour
Self-control allows us to peek at our basic nature, our first impulse
But personality and environment shape this dynamic
Maybe the most important extrinsic variable: Money!!!
what is money associated with
- free of dependence ( not needing help)
- people feeling self-sufficient and behaving accordingly
- work toward personal gain and being separate from others.
how does money makes people feel
Similar to narcissism and feelings of power
Money makes me feel good, promotes autonomy
does the rich make people mean
- High SES predicts reduced offer (less fair) in the dictator game
- High SES moralizes self-interest and greed
- Gordon Gekko
- Nicer cars less likely to stop at crosswalk
- Manipulated status decreases support for prosocial behaviour
what is the compassionate action
Compassionate action (e.g., using money earned to help others) should serve these needs, the needs are Basic psychological needs ( Autonomy, relatedness , competence)
it increase well-being
wisdom: Reorienting toward altruism
Wisdom:
-Pursuit of prosocial, compassionate ideals
- Dialecticism: when two seemingly conflicting things are true at the same time
- Self-control (temperance):
Reasoning in the face of conflict and Long-term focus
-Perspective-taking: Core feature of empathy and ‘Escape the self’
how to response to anxiety
- Change the response to anxiety
- Create a frustrationcompassion link
- Prosocial and Compassionate ideals - Defusing anxiety
- Halts the frustrationaggression/obsession link
- Allows empathy and mutes narcissism and power
what is temperance-prudence
- according to the Webster definition, it is the practice of drinking little or no alcohol
- the temperance movement is tangled up in conflict of moral authority
- prudence is the facet of temperance. it has become synonymous with reluctance. “prude”
- it can have a negative tone (as it is someone you won’t hang out with in party
- there is no empirical research
- according to Google search, prudence is “intelligent virtue” which is wisdom that guide practical decision-making. while temperance is the means by which we regulate or moderate our appetite and emotions
what is Aristotle golden mean
it is when virtue is found between excess and deficit
also it is when appropriate action is contextually-dependent and divided through intellect and wisdom
what are some examples of golden means
in excess: foolhardiness
vanity
timidity
the golden mean: courage
rightful pride
gentleness
deficiency: cowardice
undue meekness
wrathfulness
what is Aristotle’s phronesis
Phronesis is
- often translated as prudence
- practical wisdom that allows one to judge whether actions fit this golden mean
-Beyond mere restraint
- Could ‘restrain’ good impulses, too ( could restrain good impulse too)
what is the perspective of prudence as the path to virtue
- related to st thomas Aquinas
- related to platonic virtues (included temperance and prudence)
- prudence was the path through which all other virtue flowed
- directly reflects Aristotle’s view on phronesis and the golden mean
what is temperance in Hinduism
related to Dama
- characterized by self-restraint
- a primary facet of good character
it is required for holding firm to the Dharma. Dharma is duties, values, moral and ideals that sustains social and universal order
what is temperance in Buddhism
- it is the first noble truth
- life is dukkha meaning, it is uneasy, friction induced, anxiety, stress, pain, suffering
- so we find easy space from dukkha I impulsives desires and cravings
- the way to build insight and eliminate these impulsive cravings in an impermanent world is through Noble eightfold path
- Avoidance of excess and contact the world as it is. ex: temperance and prudence
what is moral philosophy
it is temperance 2.0
Virtue Ethics
- Contrasted with consequentialism (morality is contingent on the value of an action’s outcome) and deontology (morality is the action we ought to do)
- Emphasizes being and developing good character
- Draws heavily on Classical Antiquity
- Temperance again classified as virtue
according to temperance 2.0 what are positive psychology
- wisdom: (creativity, curiosity, judgement, love of learning, perspective)
- courage : (bravery, persistence, honesty, zest)
- humanity: ( love, kindness, social intelligence)
- transcendence: ( appreciation of beauty, gratitude, hope, humor, spirituality)
- justice:( teamwork, fairness, leadership)
- moderation: ( forgiveness, modesty, prudence, self-control)
so what is temperance character strength and virtues
- Humility and modesty: accurate assessment of personal attributes, escape myopic self-focus, open to other perspectives and ideas.
- Prudence (phronesis): pragmatic wisdom, involves deliberation, foresight and planning, restraint of shallow impulses and persistence in long-term goals
- Self-regulation: effortful inhibition of unwanted impulses and emotions
- Forgiveness and mercy: Revenge is seductive, but forgiveness fosters trust and connection
why is temperance important
- Contrasted with myopic convictions, arrogance, impulsivity, and aggression
-When and for whom might these negative behaviors be restrained and more appropriate actions be taken?
defensive impulses vs temperance
- Anxious circumstances can cause the reverse of Temperance. Reduced humility, prudence, control, and forgiveness
-Temperance ‘when it counts’. when aggressive, extreme, impulsive reactions loom large
what is self-control and it’s characteristics
definition: Detection of conflict and restraint of inappropriate impulse for more appropriate goal
it has the same starting point as defensive impulses however it has a different outcome
Self-control sounds a lot like temperance in anxious circumstances
Trait self-control capable of restraining defensive impulses after goal conflict and anxiety?
what does the trait self-control give
- Appear to have found a way through ‘painful passages’ mentioned by Adam in Paradise Lost
- high trait self-control are healthier, less stressed, better relationship, better grades in school, better workers
according to research what is wise reaction
(Grossmann et al., 2010)
- coded participants’ open-ended responses to social conflicts
- derived wisdom characteristics from most frequently mentioned characteristics in literature
perspective shifting from one’s own point of view to the point of view of people involved in the conflict
(ii) recognition of the likelihood of change
(iii) prediction flexibility, as indicated by multiple possible predictions of how the conflict might unfold
(iv) recognition of uncertainty and the limits of knowledge
(v) search for conflict resolution
(vi) search for a compromise
when should remember to be wise
- doing, not knowing as being smart can be a trap
- even when anxious or largely excited. as it can promote escape through the tunnel vision of approach, particularly personally powerful ideals
what is hypo-egoic states
relinquish deliberate, conscious control over personal behavior so that you will respond more naturally, spontaneously, or automatically
- Psychological distance
- Awe ( associated with pain, ache; threatening but uplifting, affirming
- Gratitude
- Mindfulness (present-focus)
- Common Humanity
- Compassionate Action
- inspirational people, symbols, reminders
- Prayer and religious/ spiritual rituals for some people…
what is mediation
- has hindu-buddhist roots
- huge variety today
- has two board components
(present awareness and emotional acceptance)
what is the result in the mediation training and Prosocial behavior
there was 8 week training group and a control group
in the study, there were 3 chairs in the waiting room and one open seat, with a participant taking the chair
the someone in crutches in discomfort shows up
the mediator group are 5 times more likely to give up seat
what is the need to belong
the desire to from social relationship is fundamental. we need to be part of stable, healthy bond with family members, romantic partners and friends in order to function normally
what are characteristics of the need to belong
- is satiable (able to be met)
- is universal
- can lead to mental and physical health problems when unmet ex: depression, anxiety, pain and aggression
what is the result of the study corresponding with the need to belong
Pressman et al. (2005) loneliness study:
- Students responded to questionnaires
- Gave students flu shot
- Students with high levels of loneliness and a small social network had poorer immune response to vaccine
-Loneliness was also related to greater psychological stress, and negative affect
what is parasocial relationship
The need to connect and belong is so strong that we sometimes use proxies for relationships such as tv characters
with the robot revolution, there are robots used to support doctor, elderly, soldiers and more. they will become fully integrated into society within next few decades
what is the social surrogacy hypothesis
holds that people resort to temporary substitutes, so-called social surrogates, if direct social interaction is not possible.
ex: having a one-sided psychological bond with favourite celebrities or fictional character
why does people make AI act like humans
Inadvertent rejection is likely a consequence of making AI act like people
what is the result from the robot rejection study
showed that social rejection by a robot can lower self-esteem relative to social acceptance by a social robot or a control condition
who is in the relationship
the big five
- Largely hereditary
- strong biological basic
- relevant to a number of interpersonal processes
attachment
- sense of security
- partly learned (close other)
-
what is the big five personality traits
- openness: curious, original, intellectual, creative and open to new ideas
- conscientiousness: organized, systematic, punctual, achievement oriented and dependable
- extraversion: outgoing, talkative, sociable and enjoys being in social situations
- agreeableness: affable, tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind and warm
- neuroticism: anxious, irritable, temperamental and moody
what is characterized by the openness to experiences
- Variety, Novelty, & Curiosity vs. consistent and cautious
- Often conceptualized as Intellect
- Predict:
Liberalism/left-wing politics
Artistic/Scientific jobs
Spirituality (but slightly –’ve with religiousness)
what is the biology behind the big 5 traits: openness/intellect
- Curiosity, variety of experience, new ideas
- frontal pole: Abstract maintenance of multiple goals
- default network: daydreaming, mind-wandering, self-reflection/projections, other
- dopamine: reward-seeking , Dopaminergic projections to the DLPFC
- cognitive version of extraversion: intellectual exploration
what happens at the different level of dopamine
At the level of motivation,
dopamine appears to assign positive value to novelty (Panksepp,1998).
At a preconscious level, dopaminergic activity decreases latent inhibition, rendering categories more flexible and allowing more of the complexity of the environment to become salient (Peterson et al.,2002).
Finally, at a higher cognitive level, dopamine facilitates the flexible information processing accomplished by the dorsolateral PFC (Arnsten & Robbins, 2002).
Other:
brain regions helping to generate cognitive flexibility, such as the
dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), may well constitute important
additional sources of Openness/Intellect. The dopaminergic projections from the VTA to the frontal lobes innervate dACC as
well as PFC, and, as mentioned above, the dACC is sometimes
found active during tasks that also activate the dorsolateral PFC
(e.g., Duncan et al., 2000; Liddle et al., 2001). The dACC has been
identified as an error, anomaly, or novelty detector (Clark, Fannon,
Lai, Benson, & Bauer, 2000; Holroyd & Coles, 2002).
what is conscientiousness
- Characterized by Disciplined, organized, and achievement-focused rather than careless and easy-going
- related to self-control
- predicts:
Polite, responsible
School/work performance
Better relationships
Follow authority
E.g. Milgram’s Experiment
Health and long-life
what is conscientiousness associated with
Controlling impulses in order to follow longer term goals or rules.
controlled by the lateral PFC: self-control: response control/inhibition, planning: resisting temptation
Low serotonin and impulsivity/reactivity
what is extraversion
- Engagement with the social and physical world rather than introverted and withdraw
- Surgency ( characterized by quickness and cleverness)
- predicts:
Flashy music and clothes
‘Invitation’ cues
Happiness, optimism
Susceptible to positive affect
But not negative affect
Positive interpersonal ratings
what brain region is related to extraversion
Amygdala response to positive emotional scenes
it is tuned towards reward
dopamine is related to OFC (orbitofrontal cortex), NA (nucleus accumbens), Striatum
what is agreeableness
- concern for others and trusting rather than selfish and antagonistic
- cooperativeness
- predicts:
Empathy
Social acceptance
Prosocial
Lower income
Resolve disagreements via acquiescence
what brain region is related to agreeableness
being Prosocial and Compassionate is related to the social brain which is Medial Frontal Cortex; Superior Temporal Sulcus; Temporal Parietal Junction
- oxytocin
what is neuroticism
it is emotional instability rather than stability and even temper
related to reactivity
predicts:
psychopathology
Anxiety, depression, phobia, panic, etc.
Variable reaction times
Self-consciousness
Impulsivity
Poorer health and well-being
what brain region is related to neuroticism
ACC (Anterior cingulate cortex) and amygdala volume
Neuroticism and uncertainty = high ACC activity
Amygdala response to negative stimuli
Insula = disgust, body sense, repulsion/ avoidance
what is twenge
anxiety increasing especially for women—money and status. Loss of relationship and community values
what is the result from the relationship satisfaction and Big Five personality traits study
neuroticism is negatively linked to relationship
satisfaction whereas extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness are positively
associated with relationship satisfaction
what is forgiveness
the process involves letting go of a transgression and returning to the original relationship. it can take time
apology prompts forgiveness. it is part of a social code and acknowledge wrongdoing
what is the result of the personality and Forgiveness study
power promotes goal-directedness. in other words power facilities forgiveness
what is the dark side of forgiveness
- For low power people, forgiveness may involve submission
-Recall, agreeableness and submissiveness - Results: High forgiveness = stable levels of aggression
what is attachment style
contingencies learned in childhood persist into adulthood
what is attachment theory related to Bowlby and Ainsworth
primary caregivers who are available and responsive to an infant’s needs allow the child to develop a sense of security. The infant learns that the caregiver is dependable, which creates a secure base for the child to then explore the world
what are attachment styles
- secure
- anxious
- avoidant
what is the secure attachment styles
caregivers respond quickly & reliably to distress
Infant becomes relaxed and resumes exploring/playing when caregiver returns to room
what is the anxious attachment styles
caregivers not consistently reliable (sometimes intrusive, sometimes rejecting)
Infant remains angry and resistant when caregiver returns, and is reluctant to return to playing
what is avoidant attachment styles
caregivers consistently unreliable (reject infants)
Infant is not affectionate, doesn’t play much, not distressed when caregiver leaves and avoidant when caregiver returns
what is the cradle to grave related to attachment styles
Bowlby claimed these attachment styles (“working models of relationships”) remain as stable patterns in our romantic adult relationships
what are the characteristics of secure attachment styles
- they find it easy to feel comfortable around others
- they found it easy to trust others
- they don’t worry about the feeling of abandonment or getting closed with someone
what is the characteristics of anxious attachment styles
- have a fear of rejection and abandonment
- so they try to get close to others (partner), scaring others away
what is the characteristics of avoidant attachment styles
- avoid being close with others since they find it uncomfortable
- find it difficult to trust others completely
- in essence, they avoid emotional closeness in any relationships
what are implications of a secure attachment styles
often longer-lasting relationships, more romantic satisfaction, more confidence and trust in relationship, more positive attributions of partner’s behaviour
what are the implications for anxious attachment styles
often short intense relationships, hypervigilant, interpret relationship events in a threatening manner
what are the implication of avoidant attachment styles
less physically affectionate & intimate, shorter relationships, lack trust, emotionally distant
what is the result of the airport study related to attachment study
Adult attachment behaviour was similar to what is observed in children
- “Avoidant” partners sought less physical contact (e.g., embraced and held hands less)
- “Anxious” partners were more distressed, experienced more fear and sadness
what are the 4 styles of adult attachment styles
- Secure: Comfortable with intimacy and autonomy.
- Anxious-Preoccupied: Dependency and ‘clinginess’
- Dismissing-Avoidant: Dismissing of intimacy (counter-dependent).
-Fearful-Avoidant: Desire closeness but feel unworthy of affection.
are insecure attachment styles (anxious and avoidant) always maladaptive?
No, Anxious and avoidant attachment are adaptive responses to the type of care that people receive (i.e., it’s not safe to trust someone who is unreliable)
But, can become a problem when we carry them forward into new relationships or leave individuals prone to distress
what are the confidence, vulnerable and uncertain levels in relation to secure attachment
- History of successful emotion regulation
- Confidence/self-confidence
-Reduced stress response
what are the confidence, vulnerable and uncertain levels in insecure attachment
- History of unsuccessful emotion regulation
-Lower self-confidence - Increased stress response
what are the person-factors that influence attraction
- proximity
- similarity
- physiological arousal
- physical attractiveness
what is proximity that influences attraction
in a study looking at a housing study, the result were most people who lived together were friends
why does proximity influence attraction
- opportunity for interaction:
We are more likely to meet and interact with people who are physically close by– the more we interact, the more likely we will become friends - mere exposure effect: We tend to like novel stimuli more after we have been repeatedly exposed to them (i.e., familiarity)
what is similarity that influence attraction
- similarity in attitudes, personality, appearance
what is the study and result related to similarity
Hinsz (1986) Study: Participants rated facial similarity of photographs of couples or random pairs
Results: Actual couples rated as more similar than random pairs
what is the result for the perceived similarity vs actual similarity study in the speed-dating study
Data revealed that perceived, but not actual, similarity significantly predicted romantic liking in this speed-dating context. Furthermore, perceived similarity was a far weaker predictor of attraction when assessed using specific traits rather than generally.
why does similarity influence attraction
- Facilitates smooth interactions (similar attitudes, less conflicts of interest)
-Similar others have qualities we like; dissimilar others are “unreasonable.”
We dislike people who are dissimilar to us even more than we like people who are similar
-We expect similar others to like us
Reciprocity- we tend to like those who like us
what is physiological arousal that influence attraction
the study and result related to the capilano is The results of the experiment showed that the men who were approached by an attractive woman on a less secure bridge were found to experience a higher level of arousal, and had a tendency to attribute this to the presence of the woman.
what is physical attractiveness
what is beautiful:
facial symmetry: We prefer symmetrical faces (seen across cultures & ethnic groups)
What are the cultural and situational influences on attractiveness
- People in different cultures are attracted to those who exemplify the traits that their culture values.
- Standards of beauty vary over time.
- Cultures vary in the kind of ornamentation people use to enhance their attractiveness
what is the cultural influences on attractiveness
high-status attributes in a given culture are often viewed as more attractive.
- Skin tones
- Body size and weight
what is the gender difference: evolutionary perspectives for women related to physical attractiveness
Women: Signs of fertility (e.g., waist-to-hip ratio)
Facial features: large eyes, full lips, small nose, prominent cheekbones, high eyebrows, broad smile
- Youth and maturity
what is the waist-to-hip ratio result
When people are asked to judge which of these women is most attractive, the average preference is usually a woman with a 0.7 ratio of waist to hip.
what is the waist-to-hip ratio result over time
Over time, standards of attractiveness for the overall size of women’s bodies have changed, but the ideal of a 0.7 waist-to-hip ratio has remained fairly constant.
it is associated with hormone balance (estrogen and progesterone) linked with fertility and health
what is the gender difference: evolutionary perspective for men related to physical attractiveness
Men: Signs of masculinity and power
Facial features: prominent cheekbones, large chin
-Provide resources and protect
-Testosterone
what is the study result in relation to physical attractiveness in the closing time study
103 women and men recruited from local bars near a university in the southern U.S.
Asked: on a scale from 1-10 on attractiveness, how would you rate the men/women in here tonight?
result: Ratings of opposite-sex attractiveness increased as closing time approached, but ratings of same-sex attractiveness did not
what is the attractiveness halo effects in interpersonal effect
Tendency to believe that attractive people also have other, unrelated positive traits
what do we think attractive people are
- happier
- warmer
- more healthy
- more outgoing
- more mature
- more intelligent
- more sensitive
- more confident
- more successful
but this is not actually true
what happens to attractive people in relation to the self-fulfilling prophecy
- Report more satisfying interactions with others
- School work evaluated more favourably
- Earn more money (especially men)
- Receive more help from others (especially women)
- receive lighter prison sentences
what is mate preferences
Evolutionary psychology argues that gender differences in mate preference would be as follows (e.g. Buss, 2003; Singh, 1993):
- Men are motivated to find a fertile mate and threatened by paternal uncertainty.
- Women must be selective because biologically limited in child bearing and look for men who possess resources or traits predictive of it.
what was the result in the Buss 1989 study in relation to mate preferences
A large survey of about 10,000 men and women in 37 different cultures revealed that
result: Men and women both valued kindness as one of the most important traits along with others such as dependability and sense of humour.
what is the result in the asymmetry in jealous of sexual versus emotional infidelity
Research also suggests an asymmetry in jealousy of sexual versus emotional infidelity (e.g. Buss, 2003; 2000; Shackelford et al., 2004; Dijkstra & Buunk, 1998).
- E.g., women rate emotional infidelity as more threatening than men.
- Men are more jealous of a partner flirting with a dominant man, while women more jealous of partner flirting with a young attractive woman.
what are the socio-cultural factors to explain the gender difference in mate preferences
Women’s preference for status may be driven by their lack of access to resources Supported by evidence that preference lower in countries with more equal distribution of economic resources.
Also, gap between stated preference and actual preference (weak attitude-behavior link)
Although men sought attractive partners and women sought partners with earning prospects, no real differences in actual preferences in speed dating context.
Evolutionary Perspective vs. Social Structural Theory
This area of research and the textbook contain a large quantity of evolutionary theorizing
Important to know that there are different explanations
“Universality” in mate selection may not be so universal
Social context matters Gender differences can be modulated by certain social contexts
Evolutionary or sociocultural explanations are not all correct or wrong, but rather both may interactively be at play, or operate at different levels (e.g., proximal vs distal)
what is the role of personality and sex in romantic relationship
Sex an important part of relationships, Indicator of romantic connection
Personality plays a big part!
A wife’s agreeableness predicts probability
A husband’s low neuroticism and low openness and a wife’s low neuroticism associated with satisfaction
Gives a picture of security, stability, and the importance of the wife’s role
what is the protective effect of sex
- Sex might increase connection, and have protective effects
- more sex = better relationship
- Most beneficial for attachment insecurity and neuroticism!
- protective factor
how to maintain sexual attraction
According to self-expansion theory, engaging in activities with a romantic partner that broaden one’s sense of self and perspective of the world (e.g., novel, exciting, interesting, and challenging activities) can reignite feelings of exhilaration and passion reminiscent of when couples first fell in love (Muise et al., 2018)
in others words, try new things together outside the bedroom
what is the four horsemen of relational apocalypse
- criticism: telling a partner his/her fault
- contempt: superiority; being sarcastic, rolling eyes
- defensiveness: denying responsibility
- stonewalling withdrawing/ avoiding partner
what are nonverbal bids
- Affectionate touching – back slap, handshake, pat, squeeze, etc.
- facial expression
- playful touching
- Affiliating gestures – opening a door, handing over a utensil or tool
- Vocalizing – laughing, grunting, sighing
what is the relationship cure
- Newlyweds, busted bids, and divorce (65 vs.15%)
- Practice fielding bids for emotional connection.
- Practice sending good bids, not lame ones.
what are the ways of maintaining a healthy relationship
- foster mutual support including emotional support and growth (Responsiveness is important in good times and bad)
- share novels and enjoyable experiences together
what are the two types of romantic love
- passionate love
- companionate love
what is passionate love
Feelings of intense longing with physiological arousal; when it is reciprocated, we feel fulfillment and ecstasy, and when it is not, we feel despair
in relation to the duration of relationships and levels of passion, passion starts high then decreases over time
what is companionate love
Feelings of intimacy and affection we feel for another person about whom we care deeply
in relation to the duration of relationships and levels of passion, intimacy starts low and gradually increases over time
what is lasting love
- Companionate love is long-lasting
- in the lauer and lauer study, Surveyed couples married for 15+ years
Why did your marriage last?”
Top 2 answers: - “My spouse is my best friend.”
- “I like my spouse as a person.”
Hedonia vs. Eudaimonia
Hedonia relates to immediate sensory pleasure, happiness, and enjoyment, while eudaimonia relates to the consequences of self-growth and self-actualization
Pleasure:
Pleasure principle:
- We want to avoid pain and experience pleasure
- So maximize happiness!
Freud, Skinner, James, Ancient Greeks like Epicurus
Meaning and Growth:
- Eating a cake vs. caring for a sick child
- Not very happy, but very meaningful
- Pixar had this experience nailed down to a science…
why doesn’t pleasure does last (Hedonia)
- we lose interest, habituate
- depends on external factors (attainment or not)
- personal integrity might suffer if we focus on pleasure for too long (the aspect of our life might not cohere as well around a pleasure principle
- good for me, but bad for you, however it is probability and for me in the long run
- the world is not really a fun place
what are characteristics of Eudaimonia
AKA Greek for good spirit
- There’s more to life than the shadow’s we see cast on the wall of the cave (Plato)
- Virtue and well-being
- Human flourishing
- Journey (not a destination)
- Good for me and good for you (Relational values)
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what are the takeaways from this social psychology course
- it is science
empirical: good idea and prove it
it is the best way to inform important social questions - the crisis is not limited to social psychology or even psychology
- basic vs applied science
we need both sciences - duality and dialecticism
Context
Good and bad; function vs. moral; proximal vs. distal
Two opposing ideas can both be true
