Social Psychology Flashcards
altruistic behaviour
helping others without a benefit to ourselves
Diffusion of Responsibility
when we feel less responsibility to act when other people are equally able to act
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
it states that the main cause of anger and aggression is frustration, which is an obstacle that stands in the way of doing something or obtaining something
Pluralistic ignorance
it is used to describe a situation in which people say nothing, and each person falsely assumes that others have a better informed opinion
Prisoner’s dilemma
a situation where people choose between a cooperative act and a competitive act that benefits themselves but hurt others
rape
a sexual activity without the consent of the partner
social loafing
the tendency to work less hard or loaf when sharing work with other people
social psychologists
They study social behaviour and how people influence one another
What is Kohlberg’s view of moral reasoning and its limits?
Lawrence Kohlberg argued that we should evaluate moral reasoning on the basis of the reasons people give for a decision rather than the decision itself. However, Kohlberg concentrated on logical reasoning. In fact, people usually act first, based on an emotional urge, and look for a justification later. Also, many people, especially in non-Western cultures, base their moral decisions on factors Kohlberg ignored, including loyalty, authority, and purity.
What are reasons for cooperation?
Studies of the prisoner’s dilemma demonstrate two rational reasons for cooperation: A cooperative person enhances his or her reputation and therefore gains cooperation from others. Also, people who cooperate punish those who do not
Actor-Observer Effect
the tendency where people are more likely to make internal attributions for other people’s behaviour and more likely to make external attributions for their own. You are an “actor: when you try to explain the causes of your own behaviour and an “observer” when you try to explain someone else’s behaviour
attribution
it is the set of thought processes we use to assign causes to our own behaviour and that of others
consensus information
how the person’s behaviour compares with other people’s behaviour
consistency information
how the person’s behaviour varies from one time to the next
discrimination
the unequal treatment of different groups
distinctiveness
how the person’s behaviour varies from one situation to another
external attribution
they are explanations based on the situation, including events that would influence almost everyone. They are known as situational
Fundamental attribution error
it is a common error to make internal attributions for people’s behaviour even when we see evidence for an external influence on behaviour. It is also known as the correspondence bias, meaning a tendency to assume a strong similarity between someone’s current actions and their dispositions
Implicit Association Test (IAT)
it measures reactions to combinations of categories
internal attribution
they are explanations based on someone’s attitudes, personality traits, abilities, or other characteristics. They are known as dispositional
multiculturalism
it is accepting, recognising and enjoying the differences among people and groups and the unique contributions that each person can offer
prejudice
it is an unfavourable attitude toward a group of people
primacy effect
the first information we learn about someone influences us more than later information
self-fulfilling prophecy
expectations that alters one’s behaviours, hence increases the probability of the predicted event
self-handicapping strategies
where people intentionally put themselves at a disadvantage to provide an excuse for failure to protect their images
self-serving biases
attributions that we adopt to maximise credit for success and minimise blame for failure
social perception and cognition
are the processes for learning about others and making inferences from that information
stereotypes
it is a belief or expectation about a group of people
What are some cultural differences in social perception?
People in Asian cultures are less likely than those in Western cultures to attribute behaviour to consistent personality traits and more likely to attribute it to the situation.
How do you measure unconscious prejudice
the implicit association test finds evidence of subtle prejudice, even among many people who deny having such prejudices. However, most people are aware of their prejudices, even if they don’t like to admit them.
attitude
it is a like or dislike that influences behaviour. It include an evaluative or emotional component (how you feel about something), a cognitive component (what you know or believe), and a behavioural component (what you are likely to do)
bait-and-switch technique
someone first offers an extremely favourable deal, gets the other person to commit to the deal, and then makes additional demands
Central route to Persuasion
it requires investing enough time and effort to evaluate the evidence and reason logically about a decision. Your emotions can still enter into the decision, but only if they are relevant → System 2
cognitive dissonance
it is a state of unpleasant tension that people experience when they hold contradictory attitudes, especially if the inconsistency distresses them. It holds that a change in people’s behaviour alters their attitudes
Foot-in-the-door technique
someone starts with a modest request, which you accept, and follows with a larger request
forewarning effect
the tendency where simply informing people that they are about to hear a persuasive speech activates their resistance and weakens the persuasion
inoculation effect
when people first hear a weak argument and then a stronger argument supporting the same conclusion
Peripheral route to Persuasion
if for any reason you associate something with feeling happy, you form a favourable attitude toward it. When a decision seems unimportant, you form or change an attitude by the peripheral route to persuasion that is based mostly on emotions. → System 1
sleeper effect
it is the delayed persuasion by an initially rejected message
that’s-not-all technique
when someone makes an offer and then improves the offer before you have a change to reply
What are some methods influencing persuasion?
- Someone you like or consider similar to yourself is more persuasive than other people are.
- Being told that most people favour some idea or action makes it appealing.
- You may feel obligated to perform a favour for someone who did a favour for you or gave you something.
- An item may appear more desirable because of its contrast to something else. In the foot-in-the-door, bait-and-switch, and that’s-not-all techniques, a first request makes you more likely to accept a second request.
How can a minority influence?
Although a minority may have little influence at first, it can, through persistent repetition of its message, eventually persuade the majority to adopt its position or consider other ideas.
coercive persuasion
Techniques designed to pressure a suspect into confessing decrease the reliability of the confession because, under these circumstances, many innocent people confess also
Companionate love
marked by sharing, care and protection
Exchange/equity theories
social relationships are transactions in which partners exchange goods and services
Mere exposure effect
the principle that the more often we come in contact with someone or something, the more we tend to like that person or object
passionate love
marked with sexual desire and excitement
proximity
closeness
How are relationships formed?
People generally choose friends and romantic partners who live near them. In the early stage of romantic attraction, physical appearance is the key factor, but similarity of interests and goals becomes more serious later. Relationships are most likely to thrive if each person believes that he or she is getting about as good a deal as the other person is.
Why is physical attractiveness important?
Theoretically, physical attractiveness should be a cue to someone’s health and therefore desirability as a mate. Someone with approximately average features is attractive, presumably because average features have been associated with successful breeding in the past.
conformity
it means altering one’s behaviour or expectations
group polarisation
if nearly all the people who compose a group lean in the same direction on a particular issue, then a group discussion moves the group as a whole even further in that direction
groupthink
it is an extreme form of group polarisation, when occurs when the members of a group suppress their doubts about a group’s decision for a fear of making a bad impression or disrupting group harmony
what are cultural differences in society>
Although some cultures tend to be more collectivist or conforming than others, it is an overgeneralization to regard all Asian cultures as collectivist or to assume that all members of a society are equally collectivist.
What are social influences?
People influence our behaviour by setting norms and by offering information. We also follow others’ examples just because they suggested a possible action.
