Abnormal Psychology Flashcards
mental illness
The American Psychiatric Association defines mental disorder as a clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behaviour. It is sometimes difficult to apply that definition, because of disagreements over what constitutes a significant disturbance.
What is the view of abnormality?
In the past, people have described abnormal behaviour in many ways, including spirit possession. The standard view today is that abnormal behaviour results from a combination of biological, psychological, and social influences.
How does culture affect the perception of abnormality?
A culture provides examples not only of how to behave normally but also of how to behave abnormally.
What is the categorical approach?
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) lists possible diagnoses and the criteria for identifying each of them.
However, most troubled people partly fit two or more diagnoses. Also, the genetic and environmental causes of various disorders overlap, and the treatment designed for one disorder may help with another. An alternative is to rate each person along several dimensions of distress.
biopsychosocial model
it emphasises biological, psychological, and sociological aspects of abnormal behaviour
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
a reference book psychiatrists and psychologists developed to standardise their definitions and diagnoses
personality disorder
a maladaptive, inflexible way of dealing with the environment and other people, such as being unusually self-centred
agoraphobia
an excessive fear of open or public places
compulsion
it is a repetitive, almost irresistible action
exposure therapy
a method of gradually exposing people to the object of their fear
Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAS)
people with it have frequent and exaggerated worries
Hyperventilation
rapid deep breathing. Panic disorders are linked to having strong autonomic responses.
obsession
a repetitive, unwelcome stream of though, such as worrying about something shameful
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
people with it have 2 kinds of problems: obsession and compulsion
Panic Disorder (PD)
people with it have frequent periods of anxiety and occasional attacks of panic – rapid breathing, increased heart rate, chest pains, sweating, faintness, and trembling
Phobia
a fear that intervenes with normal living
social phobia
a severe avoidance of other people and doing anything in the public in fear of embarrassing oneself or attracting criticisms from others
systematic desensitisation
a method of gradually exposing people to the object of their fear
What happens with the persistence of avoidance behaviours?
A learned shock-avoidance response can persist long after the possibility of shock has been removed. As with shock-avoidance responses, phobias persist because people do not discover that their avoidance behaviours are unnecessary.
common phobias
People are more likely to develop phobias of certain objects (e.g., snakes) than of others (e.g., cars). The most common objects of phobias have menaced humans throughout evolutionary history. They pose dangers that are difficult to predict or control, and we generally have few safe experiences with them.
What are treatments for OCD?
The most effective treatment is exposure to the source of distress while preventing the ritualised response. However, this treatment is often ineffective, partly because many patients refuse or quit the treatment. A valuable supplement is a cognitive intervention to help people reinterpret their thoughts and images.
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA)
it is a self-help group of people who are trying to abstain from alcohol use and help others do the same
alcoholism
it is the habitual overuse of alcohol
antabuse
it is a pill alcoholics take to become sick if they have a drink
dependence/addiction
when people are unable to quit a self-destruction habit are said to have an addiction to something
methadone
it is sometime offered as a substitute for opiates, and it is considered a safe addiction
physical dependence
someone who uses a drug to reduce unpleasant withdrawal symptoms
psychological dependence
it is a strong desire for something without withdrawal symptoms
What are motivations behind addiction?
People with an addiction continue a habit even though they recognize that it does them more harm than good. Reasons for continued use include avoiding withdrawal symptoms and coping with distress. Also, addictive substances alter the brain’s synapses to increase response to substance-related experiences and decrease response to other activities. In spite of all this, some people do manage to quit.
contingency management
it is a behavioral therapy that uses rewards to encourage positive behavioral changes. it is sometimes effective
What is the significance of the predisposition to alcoholism?
People who have less than average intoxication from moderate drinking are more likely than average to become heavy drinkers
opiate abuse
Some opiate users manage to quit. Others substitute methadone or buprenorphine under medical supervision.
antipsychotic drugs
a drug that can relieve schizophrenia
atypical antipsychotic drugs
it relieves schizophrenia with less risk of tardive dyskinesia, although some risk still remains
autism spectrum disorder
autism is a lifelong condition characterised by impaired social contact. At one time, psychiatrists distinguish autism from a milder condition, Asperger;s syndrome, but because the difference is just one of degree, the condition are combined under this term
bipolar disorder
it is a condition in which someone alternates between mood extremes
copy number variants
deletions and duplications of tiny parts of a chromosome
delusion
a belief that someone holds strongly despite evidence against it
delusion of grandeur
belief that you are unusually important
delusion of persecution
belief that enemies are persecuting you
delusion of reference
a tendency to take all sorts of messages personally
Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
the idea that the underlying cause of schizophrenia is excessive release of dopamine in certain brain areas
electroconvulsive therapy
it is when a brief electrical shock is administered across the patient’s head to induce a convulsion similar to epilepsy
hallucinations
they are perceptions that do not correspond to anything in the real world
major depression
it is a more extreme condition lasting weeks at a time, during which the person experiences little interest, pleasure, or motivation
mania
opposite of depression. People are sometimes but not necessarily cheerful, and they are constantly active, inhibited, and often irritable. They are sometimes dangerous to themselves or others
monoamine oxidase inhibitors
it blocks the metabolic breakdown of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin by the enzyme monoamine oxidase
negative symptoms
defined by the absence of a behaviour. Like the lack of emotional expression, motivation, social interactions
neurodevelopmental hypothesis
according to this, schizophrenia originates with nervous system impairments that develop before birth or in early childhood, because either genetics or early environment, especially in prenatal environment
positive symptoms
defined by the presence of some behaviour. Like hallucinations, delusions, thought disorder, and movement disorder
schizophrenia
to be diagnosed with it, someone must exhibit prolonged deterioration of daily activities such as work, social relations, and self-care, and some combination of: hallucinations, delusions, disorganised speech and thought, movement disorder, and loss of normal emotional responses and social behaviours. The symptoms must include at least 1 of the first 3
season-of-birth effect
a person born in the winter or early spring is slightly more likely to develop schizophrenia than a person born at other times
seasonal affective disorder
it is when people repeatedly become depressed during a particular season of the year
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
they have a similar effect to tricyclic drugs, but block reuptake of only serotonin
tardive dyskinesia
it is a condition characterised by tremors and involuntary movements
tricyclic drugs
it interferes with the axon’s ability to reabsorb the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin after releasing them. It prolongs the effect of these neurotransmitters at the synapses
What is the neurodevelopmental hypothesis?
Many researchers believe that schizophrenia originates with abnormal brain development before or around the time of birth because of either genetics or prenatal environment. Early abnormal development leaves a person vulnerable to further deterioration in adulthood.
What are genetic influences on mental illness?
Much evidence indicates that it is possible to inherit a predisposition toward schizophrenia. A current hypothesis is that schizophrenia can result from changes in any of a large number of genes
What is the effectiveness of the treatment for depression? and what are other possible treatments?
About one-third of patients recover from depression spontaneously within a few months. Of patients receiving psychotherapy, antidepressant drugs, or both, a little over half recover. Antidepressants are not significantly more helpful than placebos for people with mild to moderate depression.
For the many people who do not respond to drugs or psychotherapy, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is another option. Exercise and seafood help to prevent depression.
behaviour therapy
it begins with a clear, well-defined goal, such as eliminating test anxiety, and then attempts to achieve it through learning
cognitive therapy
it seeks to improve psychological well-being by changing people’s interpretation of events
Cognitive-behaviour therapy
where therapists set explicit behavioural goals, but also try to change people’s interpretation of situations
Community psychologist
they try to help people change their environment, both to prevent disorders and to promote a positive sense of mental well-being analogous to the goals set by Adler
deinstitutionalisation
the removal of patients from mental hospitals, to give them the least restrictive care possible
dream analysis
when it is seeking to understand symbolism in reported dreams
eclectic therapy
therapists use a combination of methods and approaches, and they often practise this in family therapy
empirically supported treatments
therapies demonstrated to be helpful
family systems therapy
the guiding assumption is that most people’s problems develop in a family setting and that the best way to deal with them is to improve family relationships and communication
free association
when the client says everything that comes to mind, without censoring anything or even speaking in complete sentences
group therapy
it is administered to several people at once
intervention
it is identifying a disorder in its early stages and relieving it
maintenance
it is taking steps to keep a disorder from becoming more serious
meta-analysis
taking the results of many experiments, weighting each one in proportion to the number of participants, and determining the overall average effect
M’Naghten Rule
to establish a defence of the ground of insanity, it must be clearly proved that, at the time of committing the act, the party accused was labouring under such a defect of reason, from disease of the mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing; or if he did know it, that he did not know he was doing what was wrong
To be ruled insane under the rule, people must be so disordered that they do not understand what they are doing
Morita therapy
It incorporates elements of Zen buddhism. Unlike most Western therapies, it does not focus on eliminating symptoms but help the client to accept that unpleasant emotions may come and go and are part of human existence. Its goal is to help clients let go of their preoccupation with symptoms and move on to achieve their goals in life
Person-centred therapy
a nondirective or client-centred therapy, where the therapist listens to the client with total acceptance and unconditional positive regard
prevention
it is avoiding a disorder from the start
psychoanalysis
it tries to bring unconscious thoughts and emotions to consciousness. it is an insight-oriented therapy
psychodynamic therapies
they attempt to understand conflicting impulses, including some that the individual does not consciously recognise
psychotherapy
it is a treatment of psychological disorders by methods that include a personal relationship between a trained therapist and a client
self-help group
it operates much like group therapy, except without a therapist. Each participant both gives and receives help.
spontaneous remission
improvement without therapy
Tarasoff case
in 1976, a California court ruled that a therapist who has reason to believe that a client is dangerous to someone must warn the endangered person or take other steps to prevent harm
Transference
when clients transfer onto the therapist the behaviours and feelings they originally established toward their father, mother, other important person
What is the effectiveness of psychotherapy?
The average person in therapy improves more than at least 80 percent of the equally troubled people not in therapy. In general, all mainstream therapies appear about equally effective, although cognitive or cognitive-behavioural therapy is somewhat better for reducing anxiety or other primary symptoms. Therapists today emphasise empirically supported therapies.
What are similarities among therapies?
A wide variety of therapies share certain features: All rely on a caring relationship between therapist and client. All promote self-understanding. All improve clients’ morale. And all require a commitment by clients to try to make changes in their lives.
What is the insanity defence?
Some defendants accused of a crime are acquitted for reasons of insanity, which is a legal rather than a medical or psychological concept.
