social psychology

Question 1

what are internal (dispositional) and external (situational) attributions?

Answer 1

internal- inference that a person’s behavior is caused by something about the person (whether it’s their character, personality, skill levels)
external- inference that a person’s behavior is caused by something about the situation (ex: someone speeding is late or in a big hurry)

Question 2

what is the fundamental attribution error?

Answer 2

tendency to make internal attributions for other’s behavior, even when situational causes are apparent (ex: interpreting a quiet person at a party as unfriendly, yet they might just feel unwell or had a bad day)

Question 3

what was Jones and Harris’s (1967) study in which participants read essays supporting or opposing Fidel Castro?

Answer 3

in this experiment, participants were asked to read essays that either praised or criticized fidel. after reading the essays, the participants were asked to assess the true beliefs of the writers. the participants had a tendency to believe that the writers’ actual attitudes reflected the content of the essays they had read, despite being aware that their assignments were made based on the experimenters’ instructions.

Question 4

what is the actor-observer effect?

Answer 4

tendency to attribute our OWN mistakes mainly to situational causes, but the mistakes of OTHERS mainly to dispositional causes (ex: when someone leaves a shopping cart, they’re rude. but when you do it, you’re protecting your baby.)

Question 5

what is the self-serving attribution?

Answer 5

tendency to attribute one’s positive outcomes to internal causes but negative to external causes (ex: good –> i’m awesome! bad –> not my fault.. his mistake)

Question 6

how can social roles affect behavior?

Answer 6

social norms dictate the behavior that is appropriate or inappropriate for each role.
they can also affect our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors related to violence. (ex: someone with the status of a parent has to fulfill the role of a gentle caregiver at certain times and also a stern lesson-provider in other moments.)

Question 7

what was Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment?

Answer 7

the participants were healthy, psychologically stable college students who were randomly assigned to the roles of prisoners and guards. the mock prison was set up in the basement of the university with conditions designed to mimic a real prison, including cells and guard stations. over the course of the experiment, some of the guards became cruel and tyrannical, while a number of the prisoners became depressed and disoriented. the study demonstrated how individuals’ behavior can be profoundly influenced by their roles and the power dynamics in a particular environment.

Question 8

what is cognitive dissonance?

Answer 8

the discomfort and psychological tension that arises from holding conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. when an individual’s beliefs or behaviors are inconsistent with one another, it can create a sense of internal imbalance and discomfort. (ex: you want to be healthy, but you don’t exercise regularly or eat a nutritious diet. you feel guilty as a result.)

Question 9

what are the factors involved in cognitive dissonance?

Answer 9

counterattitudinal behavior- behavior that is inconsistent with an attitude (ex: having a negative attitude toward a news anchor but continuing to watch their news)
insufficient justification- when people perform a counteradditudinal with inadequate reason, they may develop more positive attitudes towards that behavior
choice (when employees are given little autonomy or control over their work and are not given external rewards for their efforts, they may justify their behavior by attributing greater intrinsic value to their work)
choice & effort

Question 10

what was Festinger and Carlsmith’s (1959) study on cognitive dissonance ($1 vs. $20)?

Answer 10

participants were asked to complete a series of boring and repetitive tasks. after completing the tasks, participants were divided into three groups. the first group was informed that they would receive a $1 reward for their participation, the second group was told they would receive a $20 reward, and the third group was the control group and did not receive any reward. afterwards, all participants were asked to rate how enjoyable they found the tasks.

participants who received the $1 reward rated the tasks as more enjoyable compared to those who received the $20 reward. participants who received the smaller reward experienced dissonance between the unpleasantness of the tasks and the minimal monetary compensation. to reduce this dissonance, they adjusted their attitudes to align with their actions, resulting in the tasks being rated as more enjoyable.

Question 11

what are normative and informational social influence?

Answer 11

normative- social influence based on the desire to be liked or accepted (ex: to feel accepted by a particular crowd, men and women often dress similarly to individuals in that group.)
informational- social influence based on the desire to be correct (ex: choosing a restaurant based on online ratings or recommendation)

Question 12

what was Asch’s study of conformity? what type of social influence did it demonstrate?

Answer 12

the participants were shown a line and asked to identify which of three comparison lines was the same length as the standard line. the participants were placed in a group setting and asked to give their answer out loud. in some trials, confederates of the experimenter deliberately gave incorrect answers, which influenced many participants to conform to the group consensus, even when they knew the answer was incorrect.

NORMATIVE- participants choose the wrong answer to keep the association with the group. The demonstration in this experiment broadens people’s understanding of the large application of normative influence. To stay consistent with other group members, people may follow a trend that is apparently wrong.

Question 13

what was Milgram’s study of obedience? about what proportion of participants continued “shocking” the “learner” after he stopped responding?

Answer 13

participants were told they were taking part in a learning experiment, where they were required to administer electric shocks to a “learner” whenever they made a mistake. in reality, the “learner” was an actor, and no actual shocks were delivered. as the shocks increased in intensity, the “learner” would start to protest and even scream, eventually going silent as the intensity reached higher levels.

despite the alarming responses from the “learners,” approximately 65% of the participants continued to administer the shocks up to the highest level, even after the “learner” appeared to be unresponsive. this high proportion of participants who continued to obey the orders of the authority figure (the experimenter) was a significant finding from Milgram’s study and raised important ethical and psychological questions about obedience to authority.

Question 14

what is social loafing?

Answer 14

reductions in motivation and effort when individuals work collectively in a group (ex: an entertainer asking an audience to scream.. as you add more people to a group, the total group effort declines)

Question 15

what is deindividuation?

Answer 15

people engage in seemingly impulsive, deviant, and sometimes violent acts in situations in which they believe they cannot be personally identified. individuals lose their self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations. (ex: loss of self awareness and restraint when high schoolers are cheering in the student section of a football game. they are more likely to yell profanities in the crowd because they are more anonymous than if they were standing alone)

Question 16

what is group polarization?

Answer 16

tendency of groups to make more extreme decisions than do individuals alone. the beliefs, attitudes, and decisions of groups tend to be more amplified or more extreme than those held by individual group members. (ex: when several sports fans come together to support a team, they can be much more aggressive—booing the sporting officials or antagonizing the other teams’ fans—than they would have been otherwise.)

Question 17

what is groupthink?

Answer 17

pattern in group decision-making in which members assume their decision will be correct. a group of individuals reaches a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the consequences or alternatives. (ex: the leader of a group telling everyone that they need to ban all members of a particular ethnic group from joining them, and the members of this group accepting that decision without questioning it)

Question 18

what are prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination?

Answer 18

prejudice- a hostile or negative attitude toward a distinguishable group of people
stereotype- a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group
discrimination- differential actions toward members of specific social groups

Question 19

what are explicit and implicit prejudice?

Answer 19

explicit- prejudice that can be overtly expressed (ex: overt racist comments)
implicit- prejudice that the individual may not be aware of and/or cannot overtly express (ex: when most people hear the word “kindergarten teacher,” they are more likely to picture a female)

Question 20

what is the Implicit Association Test?

Answer 20

measures the strength of associations between concepts and evaluations or stereotypes to reveal an individual’s hidden or subconscious biases.

Question 21

what is the just-world phenomenon? how does it explain prejudice?

Answer 21

a cognitive bias that leads people to believe that the world is inherently fair and that people generally get what they deserve. it suggests that individuals believe that people who are successful and happy are so because they deserve to be, whereas those who are suffering or experiencing hardships must have done something to deserve it.

leads to prejudice- it leads people to blame the victims of prejudice for their own mistreatment. people may use the just-world belief to rationalize discriminatory behavior by attributing the negative treatment of others to their supposed deservingness.

Question 22

what is realistic conflict theory? how does it explain prejudice?

Answer 22

when groups perceive that their goals, interests, or identities are threatened or in conflict with those of another group, it can lead to negative attitudes, stereotypes, and discrimination toward members of the out-group.when groups compete for the same resources, such as jobs, housing, or political power, they are more likely to develop negative attitudes towards each other.

the resulting intergroup tension and hostility can lead to prejudice, as individuals may view members of the out-group as a threat to their own group’s well-being and status.

Question 23

what was Sherif’s Robber’s Cave experiment?

Answer 23

two groups of boys, who initially had no contact with each other were randomly divided into two groups, the “Rattlers” and the “Eagles,” and were not aware of the existence of the other group. In the first phase, the boys within each group bonded and established strong group identities through various activities. In the second phase, the two groups were introduced to each other in a competitive setting, leading to intergroup conflict and hostility.

sherif and his colleagues then introduced a series of interventions aimed at reducing intergroup hostility and promoting cooperation. these interventions included creating situations that required the two groups to work together to achieve common goals, as well as providing opportunities for the boys to interact in a non-competitive and cooperative environment.

the study concluded that intergroup conflict could be significantly reduced through cooperative activities that required both groups to work together towards a shared goal.

Question 24

how does social identity theory explain prejudice?

Answer 24

explains prejudice as a result of individuals identifying themselves with a particular social group and perceiving others who belong to different groups as threats to their own group status. this theory suggests that people strive to maintain a positive social identity by favoring their in-group and discriminating against out-group members.

Question 25

what is in-group bias?

Answer 25

the tendency of individuals to favor or give preferential treatment to members of their own group over those who are perceived as being outside of that group. can manifest in various forms, such as giving more opportunities to in-group members, assigning them favorable traits, or attributing their successes to internal factors while attributing the failures of out-group members to external factors.

Question 26

what are minimal groups? what was the minimal group experiment (Tajfel, 1971)?

Answer 26

minimal groups- groups united by trivial similarities (ex: such as the flip of a coin or the color of a t-shirt)

tafjel randomly assigned participants to groups based on a meaningless decision, such as the preference for certain abstract paintings. he then asked the participants to allocate rewards to other individuals, including both in-group and out-group members. the results showed that participants consistently favored their in-group members over out-group members, even when the groups were formed based on trivial or arbitrary criteria.

Question 27

how does categorization explain stereotyping?

Answer 27

categorization- classifying information into categories

categorization can explain stereotyping as follows:
people have a natural tendency to categorize others based on visible characteristics such as race, gender, age, or other social attributes. when individuals are perceived as belonging to a particular category, stereotypes associated with that category are often applied to those individuals, leading to group-based expectations and assumptions. these stereotypes can influence our perception, judgment, and behavior towards others, leading to biases and discrimination based on these generalized beliefs.

Question 28

how does the confirmation bias explain stereotyping?

Answer 28

when people hold stereotypical beliefs about a certain group, they are more likely to notice and remember information that confirms these beliefs. individuals may interpret information in a way that aligns with their existing stereotypes. they might perceive ambiguous behavior or situations in a manner that reinforces their preconceived notions about the group in question. individuals with confirmation bias may actively seek out information that validates their stereotypes while ignoring information that challenges them

Question 29

what is the contact hypothesis? is it supported?

Answer 29

bringing individuals from different groups into contact with each other under positive conditions can help to reduce prejudice and improve intergroup relations.

YES- the contact hypothesis is supported by evidence indicating that positive intergroup contact under certain conditions can lead to reduced prejudice and improved intergroup relations. however, the effectiveness of the contact hypothesis is contingent on the specific context and the quality of the interactions between groups.

Question 30

what is cooperative interdependence?

Answer 30

individuals or entities depend on each other to achieve a common goal or to solve a problem. involves working together, sharing resources, and supporting each other in order to accomplish a task or reach a mutual benefit.

Question 31

how did Sherif reduce prejudice in the Robber’s Cave study?

Answer 31

introducing goals that can only be achieved through the cooperation of different groups, thereby fostering a sense of interdependence and cooperation. (CREATING A COMMON PURPOSE)

Sherif worked to create situations where competition was transformed into cooperation, thereby mitigating the tensions between the groups.

ensuring that the groups had equal status, were working towards common goals, and there was the support of authorities, Sherif was able to facilitate positive interactions between the groups.

Question 32

what is a jigsaw classroom?

Answer 32

purpose is to eliminate competition and introduce cooperation in classrooms
a method of organizing classroom activity that makes students dependent on each other to succeed. It breaks classes into groups that each assemble a piece of an assignment and synthesize their work when finished. MUST COOPERATE TO SUCCEED

Question 33

what is the drive theory of aggression?

Answer 33

such behavior stems mainly from an externally elicited drive to harm or injure others. aggression results from situations that stimulate the internal motive to harm others

Question 34

what is catharsis? does it reduce aggression?

Answer 34

the notion that “blowing off steam”—by behaving aggressively or watching others do so—relieves built-up anger and aggressive energy and hence reduces the likelihood of further aggressive behavior. (not supported)
however, committing or watching acts of aggression –> increases tendency toward future aggression

Question 35

what is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

Answer 35

frustration increases probability of aggressive behavior

Question 36

how do similarity and proximity predict liking?

Answer 36

proximity allows people the opportunity to get to know one other and discover their similarities—all of which can result in a friendship or intimate relationship. proximity matters to attraction is that it breeds familiarity; people are more attracted to that which is familiar. just being around someone or being repeatedly exposed to them increases the likelihood that we will be attracted to them. we also tend to feel safe with familiar people, as it is likely we know what to expect from them.

Question 37

what is the mere exposure effect? how has this been demonstrated in studies?

Answer 37

repeated exposure to a person increases our liking for the person
(ex: buying a particular brand just because of the familiarity of commercials or ads. ordering the same thing from a menu simply because it is familiar. becoming increasingly attracted to someone because of repeated encounters at a common job, school, or a sports center.)

Question 38

what is the bystander effect? why does this occur?

Answer 38

bystander effect- the presence of other people makes it LESS likely that anyone will help a stranger in distress

why?
diffusion of responsibility- the presence of other people makes each individual feel less personally responsible (ex: kitty genovese and the neighbors not calling the police)
pluralistic ignorance- bystanders assume nothing is wrong in an emergency because other bystanders don’t appear concerned (ex: a professor finished a discussion of a difficult topic by asking “are there any questions?” many students are completely confused, but no hands are raised. the confused students conclude that everyone else understands the material, and that they alone are confused)
evaluation apprehension- concern about social approval or dissaproval (ex: women taking a math test may not perform to their full potential because of concerns regarding women’s stereotyped difficulties with math.)