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Personality & social > Social perception > Flashcards

Social perception Flashcards

1
Q

What does Penton-Voak (2006) state that we use facial characteristics for?

A

Penton-Voak (2006) says that we use facial characteristics as a basis for personality attributions

We have schemas for what we believe nice/mean/etc. people look like

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2
Q

Pps judged faces for traits (trustworthiness, likability, aggressiveness) with varied presentation times

There trait judgements were correlated with judgments made under no time constraint

Who did this study & what did they find?

A

Willis & Todorov (2006)

There was a high correlation between trait judgments made under time constraint or no time constraint - pps made the same judgments despite the amount of time they saw the faces for

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3
Q

What are the 6 basic emotions?

A
  • happiness
  • sadness
  • anger
  • fear
  • disgust
  • suprise
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4
Q

What are characteristics of the 6 basic emotions?

A
  • universally expressed & recognised

- each have distinct patterns of facial muscle activity

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5
Q

What piece of research supports that idea that the 6 basic emotions are universal?

A

Ekman et al. (1987) found that people from Western, Latin & tribal cultures could identify basic emotions from facial expressions of people of the same culture & different cultures

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6
Q

What is non-verbal behaviour?

A

Unintentional/intentional communication without words

Transferring info by means other than written/spoken language

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7
Q

Give examples of non-verbal behaviours.

A
  • facial expressions
  • body language
  • eye contact
  • personal space
  • physical touch
  • tone of voice
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8
Q

We acquire a repertoire of non-verbal behaviours early in life.

Who said this & what does it suggest?

A

Ekman & Friesen (1969)

Suggests that there will be individual differences in the skills & uses people have in employing non-verbal communication

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9
Q

What are display rules?

A

Culture-specific rules that define which behaviours are appropriate to display

They govern the expression of emotion

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10
Q

Give an example of a display rule.

A

Western cultures discourage the display of emotion in men & anger in women

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11
Q

What are the functions of non-verbal communication?

A
  • collect info about the feelings & intentions of others
  • regulate interactions
  • express intimacy (touching, mutual eye contact)
  • establish dominance/control over others (non-verbal threats)
  • facilitate goal attainment
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12
Q

We use _________ to express emotions & _________ to communicate with others.

A

We use FACIAL EXPRESSIONS to express emotions & DISPLAY RULES to communicate with others.

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13
Q

We can explain a person’s behaviour by crediting their disposition (stable, enduring traits) or the situation.

Who said this?

A

Heider (1958)

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14
Q

Who proposed Covariation theory?

A

Kelley (1973)

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15
Q

What does Covariation theory claim?

A

We make attributions using the covariation principle

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16
Q

What is the covariation principle?

A

It describes how we attribute someone’s behaviour to internal (their disposition)/external (the environment) causes

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17
Q

How do we decide whether we attribute a person’s behaviour to internal/external causes?

A

To decide, we assess 3 classes of info associated with the co-occurrence of an action by a person with a potential cause…(useful when we can observe behaviour over several occasions)

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18
Q

What are the 3 classes of info that we assess to decide whether we attribute a person’s behaviour to internal/external causes?

A
  1. Consensus - the covariation of behaviour across different people (i.e. agreement)
  2. Distinctiveness - how unique the behaviour is to the situation
  3. Consistency - covariation of behaviour across time
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19
Q

What does it mean when consensus is high?

A

Lots of people agree - e.g. lots of people find Lisa attractive –> attribute their behaviour to the (external) stimulus (Lisa)

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20
Q

What does it mean when distinctiveness is low?

A

People behave similarly in all situations –> attribute their behaviour to the person (internal)

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21
Q

What does it mean when consistency is low?

A

People do not always behave like this (e.g. are not always generous) –> attribute their behaviour to the situation (external)

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22
Q

Hewstone & Jaspars (1987) found that when we have low consensus + low distinctiveness + high consistency, we make a ______ attribution.

A

Hewstone & Jaspars (1987) found that when we have low consensus + low distinctiveness + high consistency, we make a PERSONAL attribution.

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23
Q

Hewstone & Jaspars (1987) found that when we have high consensus + high distinctiveness + high consistency, we make a ______ attribution.

A

Hewstone & Jaspars (1987) found that when we have high consensus + high distinctiveness + high consistency, we make a STIMULUS attribution.

24
Q

Hewstone & Jaspars (1987) found that when we have high consensus + low distinctiveness + low consistency, we make a ______ attribution.

A

Hewstone & Jaspars (1987) found that when we have high consensus + low distinctiveness + low consistency, we make a CIRCUMSTANCE attribution.

25
Q

Pps were allocated to a questioner/contestant role
Questioners asked the contestants difficult general knowledge questions.

Who did this study & what did they find?

A

Ross, Amabile & Steinmetz (1975)

Questioners rated superior (more clever) to contestants

26
Q

What error did pps demonstrate in Ross, Amabile & Steinmetz’s (1975) questioner/contestant study?

A

Fundamental attribution error

27
Q

What is the fundamental attribution error

A

When we overestimate the impact of personal disposition & underestimate the impact of situations when explaining others’ behaviour

It doesn’t explain interpretations of own behaviour, where situational factors are easily recognised & considered

28
Q

What is the actor-observer bias?

A

The tendency to make personal attributions for the behaviour of others & situational attributions for ourselves

29
Q

Pps sat at 3 vantage points around Confederates A & B (behind A/behind B/in between) & watched them interact.

Pps rated the extent to which A & B’s behaviour was caused by personal/situation factors, how each set the tone of the conversation & how each caused the other’s behaviour.

Who did this study & how did pps respond?

A

Taylor & Fiske (1975)

Pps watching B (sat behind A) rated B as more causal
Pps watching A (sat behind B) rated A as more causal
Pps sat in between perceived A & B as equally influential

30
Q

What are the cognitive causes of attribution errors?

A
  • perceptual saliency & availability of info

- thinking style

31
Q

How does perceptual saliency & availability of info influence people to make attribution errors?

A

It is about knowing/not knowing someone’s situation

Behaviour is often salient while situational factors are not –> we tend to make a personal attribution for others

FAE doesn’t occur for ourselves because we are aware of our own situation (& disposition)

32
Q

How does thinking style influence people to make attribution errors?

A

Asian cultures have a holistic thinking style - emphasise the context & situational factors over the individual –> prevents the FAE

Western cultures have an individualist thinking style - emphasise the individual over situational factors –> more prone to the FAE

33
Q

What are the motivational causes of attribution errors?

A
  • need for self-esteem & self-presentation motives

- need for control (+ belief in a just world)

34
Q

How does the need for self-esteem & having self-presentation motives influence people to make attribution errors?

A

Leads to self-serving biases for successes & failures

  • successes are often attributed to ourselves
  • failures are often attributed to others/the situation

–> i.e. we attribute positive events to our own character & negative events to external factors

35
Q

How does the need for control influence people to make attribution errors?

A

When attributing an outcome to someone else’s disposition, it gives us a sense of self-control –> that it won’t happen to you, you can control it

Leads to defensive biases (belief in a just world)

36
Q

What is ‘belief in a just world’?

A

A defensive attribution

Believing that people get what they deserve

Attributing failures to dispositional causes (vs. situational = uncontrollable) satisfies the need to believe that the world is fair & we have control over our life

37
Q

Why are we motivated to see a ‘just world’?

A

We are motivated to see a just world because…

  • it reduces perceived threats
  • it gives us a sense of security
  • it helps us find meaning in difficult circumstances
  • it is psychologically beneficial
38
Q

What behaviour does ‘belief in a just world’ lead to?

A

Tend to blame victims
–> reassure ourselves of our insusceptibility to such events

May blame the victim’s own faults to justify their bad outcome

39
Q

What is mind perception?

A

Recognising that others have agency & experience

40
Q

What is ‘agency’?

A

The capacity for planning, having intentions & setting goals

41
Q

What is ‘experience’ (in relation to mind perception)?

A

The capacity for feeling, emotion & desires

42
Q

What is dehumanisation?

A

Representing people as objects/animals & denying them of having thoughts/ emotions

Often serves as self-justification for treating others inhumanely

Prevents feelings of empathy –> makes it easier to treat them badly

43
Q

What is anthropomorphism?

A

Representing non-humans as humanlike

Often caused by the motivation/need to connect with others &/or to understand & control the world

44
Q

What is the primacy effect?

A

When we are given a list of items, we are more likely to remember items at the beginning of the list

45
Q

Asch (1946) says that our impressions are affected by _____ traits more than _____ traits.

A

Asch (1946) says that our impressions are affected by CENTRAL traits more than PERIPHERAL traits.

46
Q

What did pps do in Asch’s (1946) study investigating the primacy effect & what did they find?

A

Pps formed impressions & wrote characterisations of a person to whom a list of trait adjectives applied

Found that the order of traits influenced their impressions – a person with a list beginning with positive traits (“intelligent”) was rated more positively than a person with a list beginning with negative traits (“envious”)
= primacy effect

47
Q

Changing which type of trait changes an impression most?

A

Traits can be central/peripheral according to their fit in the general configuration of traits

Changing a central trait in a series changes the impression more than changing a peripheral trait

48
Q

When can priming bias impression formation?

A

Priming can bias impression formation only when applicable info is primed

49
Q

Pps had to memorise words, including 6 object-nouns (e.g. furniture) & 4 personality traits (positive OR negative)

They were then shown a description about a stimulus person (Donald) & had to categorise his personality as positive or negative

Who did this study & what did they find?

A

Higgins et al. (1977)

Pps who memorised positive traits formed a positive impression of Donald

They used trait categories that had been previously been primed through unobtrusive exposure to trait terms to form their impression

Pps had formed a schema –> this influenced their impression

50
Q

Define ‘impression formation’.

A

When individual pieces of info about a person are integrated to form a global impression of them

51
Q

What factors can influence impression formation?

A
  • traits (primacy effect, central traits shape impressions more than peripheral traits)
  • priming (recently-used info biases impression formation)
52
Q

What is do Implicit Personality theories describe?

A

Describe the patterns & biases that a person uses when forming impressions based on a limited amount of info about an unfamiliar person

Our expectations that we build about someone after we know their central traits

53
Q

What are confirmation biases?

A

The tendency to seek, interpret & create info that verifies our existing beliefs

54
Q

What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?

A

A type of confirmation bias

The process by which our expectations about someone eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations

55
Q

How do self-fulfilling prophecies cause a behaviour change in another person?

A
  1. We have an expectancy/social theory about a target person
  2. We behave towards the target in a way that is consistent with our expectation/theory
  3. The target responds to our behaviour in a similar way
  4. We see the target’s behaviour as proof that our expectation was correct – we don’t realise the role we played in causing the target’s response
56
Q

Who looked at how to avoid biased social perception?

A

Gilber & Malone (1995)

57
Q

What stages did Gilber & Malone (1995) state that we go through when trying to avoid biased social perception?

A
  1. We are sitting in class & the teacher asks a question; the student in front of you gets it wrong
  2. You automatically make an internal attribution about the student
  3. If you have the time, energy & motivation, you consider other possible explanations (situational)
  4. You adjust your initial attribution, taking into account other possible external causes

Personality & social (12 decks)

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