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Improving intergroup relations Flashcards

1
Q

What was the Rwandan genocide?

A
  • 100-day civil war in 1994 between Hutu & Tutsi

- mass slaughter of Tutsi & moderate Hutu by Hutu majority (500,000-1,000,000 Tutsi deaths)

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2
Q

What is the Israel-Palestine conflict about?

A
  • borders, water rights, control of Jerusalem

- since 2000, 1,000+ Israel deaths & 9,000+ Palestinian deaths

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3
Q

Negative intergroup relations are a destructive force of extreme prejudice & conflict.

What are some less extreme but more pervasive effects of prejudice?

A
  • hate crimes

- discrimination towards low-power groups in society

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4
Q

What are some negative effects of prejudice on target groups?

A
  • self-fulfilling prophecies
  • stereotype threat
  • self-esteem
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5
Q

What did Jussim & Harber (2005) find about SFPs & prejudice?

A

Jussim & Harber (2005) – SFPs occur in classrooms but effects are usually small; powerful SFPs may occur amongst students from stigmatised groups

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6
Q

What did Steele & Aronson (1995) find about stereotype threat & prejudice?

A

Steele & Aronson (1995) - culturally-shared stereotypes that suggest poor performance of certain groups can disrupt the performance of a person who identifies with that group

African Americans did worse on a verbal exam than Whites in the stereotype threat condition (told that the test indicated their underlying intellectual abilities) but performance was the same in the non-threat condition (not diagnostic of ability)

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7
Q

What did Hogg (1985) find out about self-esteem & prejudice?

A

Hogg (1985) - women generally share men’s negative stereotypes of women & evaluate themselves in terms of such stereotypes
Under circumstances where gender is the salient bias of self-perception, women report a reduction in self-esteem

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8
Q

What are the models of categorisation?

A
  1. Decategorisation
  2. Cross categorisation
  3. Recategorisation
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9
Q

What component is essential in the formation of prejudice?

A

Categorisation (group distinctions)

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10
Q

Who proposed the model of decategorisation?

A

Brewer & Miller (1988)

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11
Q

What is the basis of decategorisation?

A

Group categories are abandoned & people are encouraged to think of others in an interpersonal context (rather than intergroup)

There is a focus on personal/individual features

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12
Q

Bettencourt et al. (1992) separated pps into 2 groups (each wore different badges)

  • decategorisation group focused on the personal features of the task (interpersonal)
  • control group focused on the task (intergroup)

Groups worked together on the task, what did they find?

A

Bettencourt et al. (1992) - the decategorisation group showed reduced intergroup bias

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13
Q

What are the limitations of the decategorisation model?

A

X not possible for visibly distinct groups (e.g. race, gender) (Simon, Aufderheide & Kampmeier, 2001)

X real-life social identities are important for our self-definition –> people are usually unwilling to relinquish them (Tajfel & Turner, 1979)

X positive effects towards individual members aren’t likely to be generalised to the who out-group (individual isn’t viewed as an out-group member) = subtyping

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14
Q

Wilder (1984) studied subtyping. What is it?

A

Subtyping is when perceivers respond to members of a target group who disconfirm their stereotypes by seeing them as exceptions to the rule & placing them in a separate subcategory away from members who confirm the stereotype

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15
Q

What did Hewstone & Brown (1986) say is necessary for the generalisation of positive effects (from the individual to the whole group)?

A

Hewstone & Brown (1986) – some level of category salience/awareness is necessary for generalisation of the positive effects to the whole out-group

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16
Q

What is the basis of cross categorisation?

A

Our social identities are made of many group memberships

People are encouraged to think of out-group members in terms of how similar they are to us on other category dimensions

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17
Q

Give an example of cross categorisation

A

Female / male
Psychology / business

If you are FP = double in-group
If you are MB = double out-group
–> simple categorisation

FB & MP = one in-group dimension
–> cross categorisation

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18
Q

Which researcher/s studied boys & girls given red & blue pens?
What did they do/find?

A

Deschamps & Doise (1978)

Boys & girls sat around a table
Half were given red pens, half given blue pens (crossed gender & pen-colour categories)
Pps rated in-group & out-group (gender) performance

Found that simple categorisation = intergroup bias; cross categorisation = reduced intergroup bias

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19
Q

What is a limitation of cross categorisation?

A

Potentially problematic for the double out-group

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20
Q

Who proposed recategorisation as a way of reducing prejudice?

A

Gaertner et al. (1993)

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21
Q

What is the basis of recategorisation (Gaertner et al., 1993)?

A

The model seeks to alter which categorisations are used & replace subordinate (‘us’ ‘them’) categorisations with superordinate (‘we’) categorisations

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22
Q

How does the recategorisation model say we can reduce intergroup bias?

A

Bias is reduced by improving attitudes towards former out-group members, owing to their recategorisation from out-group to in-group

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23
Q

How is intergroup bias often expressed, according to Gaertner et al. (1993)?

A

Intergroup bias is often expressed as in-group favouritism rather than out-group derogation

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24
Q

How can out-group members be viewed more positively, according to the recategorisation model?

A

If out-group members are perceived as in-group members, they will be viewed more positively

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25
Q

There is supporting evidence for the effectiveness of the recategorisation model. Give an example.

A

Dovidio et al. (1995) found that pps who had stronger superordinate representations showed less intergroup bias

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26
Q

Gaertner et al. (1989) also found support for recategorisation. What did their study involve?

A

Pps did a problem-solving task as either…

a) 2 groups (A vs. B) - segregated seating (aaabbb)
b) 1 group (A & B) - integrated seating (ababab)
c) individuals

Pps had to evaluate each member

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27
Q

What did Gaertner et al. (1989) find in their study of recategorisation?

A

There was greater intergroup bias when pps worked in 2 different teams (A vs. B) - no competition, just a lack of cooperation/superordinate identity

There was reduced intergroup bias in the 1 group (superordinate) condition

When working as individuals, they perceived others as individuals

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28
Q

Dovidio et al. (1997) found that intergroup relations are likely to improve over time, rather than immediately. Why is this the case?

A

Intergroup relations improve gradually as positive biases associated with a new superordinate group membership encourage more self-disclosing interactions with former out-group members

This leads to more differentiated impressions of them

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29
Q

What are the limitations of recategorisation?

A

X Brewer & Gaertner (2001) - a common in-group identity may only be short-lived or unrealistic in the face of powerful ethical & racial categorisations

X threatens to deprive individuals of valued social identities in smaller, less inclusive groups

X Brewer (2000) - for groups with a history of antagonism & for minorities who are likely to resist assimilation into a superordinate category that is dominated by an out-group, the prospect of a superordinate group identity may constitute a threat & increase their levels of intergroup bias

30
Q

Why might recategorisation threaten to deprive individuals of their social identities? What might result?

A

By eradicating/replacing original categorisations, the model is unlikely to meet the needs of assimilation & differentiation, or of cognitive simplicity & uncertainty reduction

31
Q

Brewer (2000) - people who identify strongly with their in-group view superordinate categorisation as…

A

…a threat to in-group positive distinctiveness

–> increases intergroup bias

explained by Social Identity theory

32
Q

Who proposed intergroup contact as a method of improving intergroup relations?

A

Allport (1954)

33
Q

What did Pettigrew & Tropp (2008) define intergroup contact as?

A

Face-to-face interaction between members of different groups

34
Q

According to Allport (1954), contact between opposing group members should reduce prejudice as long as prerequisites are in place. What are they?

A
  • institutional support
  • cooperation to achieve common goals
  • free from competition
  • equal status between contact members
35
Q

What attitudes can be improved/reduced as a result of intergroup contact?

A
  • race (e.g. Plant & Devine, 2003)
  • sexual orientation (e.g. Herek & Captitanio, 1996)
  • age (e.g. Drew, 1988)
  • mental & physical disability (e.g. Anderson, 2006)
36
Q

Contact is a highly robust & effective method of reducing prejudice even without Allport’s prerequisites, but it is most effective when these facilitating conditions are in place.

Who found this?

A

Pettigrew & Tropp (2006)

37
Q

Who found that intergroup contact has a weaker effect with individuals in minority groups?

A

Tropp & Pettigrew (2005)

38
Q

Contact improves intergroup attitudes & behaviours, & reduces stereotyping by…

A
  • increasing empathy towards the out-group (Swart et al., 2010)
  • encouraging perspective-taking (Hewstone et al., 2006)
  • enhancing feelings of trust towards the out-group (Tam et al., 2009)
  • reducing intergroup anxiety & threat (Stephan & Stephan, 2000)
39
Q

What does Stephan & Stephan (1985) claim is a limitation of intergroup contact?

A

We will experience intergroup anxiety, especically if we have had minimal contact with the out-group before, hold negative beliefs about the out-group &/or if interaction is unstructured (–> increased ambiguity)

40
Q

What other limitations of intergroup contact are there?

A

X intergroup arousal can have a negative impact - arousal is generalised to the target of the interaction & leads to increased prejudice & avoidance of the out-group (Stephan et al., 2005)

X opportunity for direct contact isn’t always available (e.g. people in highly segregated areas, often only associate with other like-minded people)

41
Q

What is intergroup anxiety?

A

Negative arousal when anticipating/experiencing contact with an out-group member
Arousal associated with the out-group, leading to prejudice

42
Q

What can result from positive contact with an out-group member?

A

Positive contact with the out-group member → anxiety associated with the out-group is reduced → attitudes towards the out-group are improved → reduced prejudice

43
Q

Protestants & Catholics in Northern Ireland did a questionnaire - reported the number of out-group friends they had & their feelings towards the out-group

Who did this study & what did they find?

A

Paolini et al. (2004)

Cross-group friendships reduced intergroup anxiety & improved their attitudes towards the out-group

44
Q

How do Sherif & Sherif’s (1953) Robber’s Cave studies relate to intergroup anxiety?

A

Intergroup events did not improve intergroup relations but served as occasions for rival groups to attack & berate each other

45
Q

Allport (1954) looked at unpublished data about anti-Black sentiment amongst White people living in Chicago. What did he find?

A

There was a correlation between proximity & anti-Black attitudes –> prejudice towards the Black community INCREASED with greater residential proximity

i.e. more prejudice the nearer they were

46
Q

Who proposed the Extended Contact hypothesis?

A

Wright et al. (1997)

47
Q

What is the basis of the Extended Contact hypothesis?

A

Mere knowledge of positive cross-group relationships should reduce negative expectations about future interactions with the out-group & reduce prejudice

48
Q

What is a pro of the Extended Contact hypothesis?

A

It doesn’t require actual interaction – a person can learn about intergroup contact without experiencing anxiety involved in direct contact

49
Q

Wright et al. (1997) created intergroup conflict between 2 groups. One person from each group did a cooperative task together & then discussed their experience with their in-group.

What happened?

A

This reduced intergroup conflict & bias

50
Q

How can social media be related to the extended contact hypothesis?

A

Shared photos, posts & statuses are opportunities for extended contact
Knowledge of other people’s cross-group friendships

51
Q

Which researchers have found support for the extended contact hypothesis?

A
  • Turner et al. (2008)
  • Paolini et al. (2004)
  • Liebkind & McAllister (1999)
52
Q

How does Turner et al.’s (2008) study support the extended contact hypothesis?

A

Turner et al. (2008) surveyed White students about their experiences with & attitudes towards South Asians

Pps reported their degree of extended contact with this group, their experience of intergroup anxiety & their attitude towards the out-group

Found that extended contact was associated with more positive out-group attitudes

53
Q

How does Paolini et al.’s (2004) study support the extended contact hypothesis?

A

Paolini et al. (2004) - Protestants & Catholics in Northern Ireland did a questionnaire - reported the number of out-group friends they had & their feelings towards the out-group

Found that knowledge of cross-group friendships improved attitudes towards the out-group

54
Q

How does Liebkind & McAllister’s (1999) study support the extended contact hypothesis?

A

Found that extended contact was effective amongst children & teens in improving attitudes towards the out-group

55
Q

What other pros of extended contact are there?

A

Extended contact overcomes issues with direct contact (especially intergroup anxiety)

56
Q

Who proposed imagined contact as a method of improving intergroup relations?

A

Crisp & Turner (2009)

57
Q

What is the basis of imagined contact?

A

Imagining positive contact with an out-group member will have similar (but less powerful) effects as direct contact

58
Q

How did Turner, Crisp & Lambert (2007) study imagined contact?

A

Experiment 1:
Imagined contact group (imagined a positive encounter with an elderly stranger) vs. control group (imagined an outdoor scene)
–> found that both groups were willing to work with a young & elderly person on a subsequent task, but the control group showed intergroup bias with a preference for working with young person & the experimental group showed NO bias/preference

Experiment 2:
Replicated the positive effect of imagined contact with homosexual out-group
–> heterosexual males evaluated homosexual mates more positively after imagined contact

59
Q

What are the positive effects of imagined contact, according to Turner & Crisp (2009)?

A

Turner & Crisp (2009) - improved explicit & implicit attitudes

60
Q

What are the positive effects of imagined contact, according to Turner et al. (2007)?

A

Turner et al. (2007) - reduced intergroup anxiety

61
Q

What are the positive effects of imagined contact, according to Turner & West (2012)?

A

Turner & West (2012) - improved intergroup behaviours (seating proximity)

62
Q

In which population did Miles & Crisp (2014) find that imagined contact had the most positive effect?

A

Miles & Crisp (2014) - especially strong effects in school children

63
Q

Turner & Crisp (2009) proposed imagined contact as a preparatory measure to…

A

…encourage active pursuit & a positive experience of direct contact

64
Q

What other pros of imagined contact are there?

A

It overcomes issues of other forms of contact

  • no need for opportunity
  • little intergroup anxiety
65
Q

What is a limitation of imagined contact?

A

Its effects aren’t as powerful as for direct contact

66
Q

Which researcher/s support the findings that the effects of imagined contact aren’t as powerful as for direct contact?

A

Fazio, Powell & Herr (1983)

67
Q

Who has found evidence that imagined contact does have similar effects to direct contact, but stress that it should be used as a preparatory measure (not a replacement for direct contact)?

A

Giacobbe, Stukas & Farhall (2013)

68
Q

Stephan & Stephan (1984) claim that prejudice is partly based on…

A

…ignorance

69
Q

How can education reduce prejudice?

A

By promoting tolerance

70
Q

Why have some techniques only produced small effects in reducing prejudice in children?

A

They treat the child as a passive receiver of info rather than having an active role

71
Q

Who claimed that imagined contact could be used as an intervention in schools?

A

Miles & Crisp (2014)

Imagined contact has been found to be especially effective in school children
Children would play an active role

72
Q

Elliot (1977) gave children the opportunity to experience being a victim of prejudice & discrimination. What happened?

A

When children had the opportunity to experience prejudice & discrimination, their prejudice levels reduced

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