Social Institutions (BS 2 CH8) COPY

Question 1

social institutions

Answer 1

There is a fundamental split between perspectives of (structural) functionalism and conflict theory on the role of social institutions:

Functionalists view these institutions as maintaining stability and continuity in society.

Conflict theorists argue that these institutions are instruments by which those groups that are in power are able to maintain dominance over those that are not.

Question 2

Education

Answer 2

An educational system is clearly one of the fundamental mechanisms by which a society transmits information to future generations and prepares individuals to be integrated into a particular role in society.

As a result, education is also one of the most important factors in determining the opportunities that an individual will have.

Education can be a powerful force to help disadvantaged groups if it provides open and equal access to opportunity.

Unfortunately, educational systems will typically perpetuate existing social hierarchies and can prove to be powerful impediments to social change.

Question 3

Education- Hidden Curriculum

Answer 3

Hidden curriculum refers to the idea that an educational system conveys more than just academic knowledge: education is also crucial in transmitting various beliefs, norms, and values to young individuals in society.

Many aspects of an educational system convey information about the student’s role in society and social status.

The exercise of authority by the teacher, the relationships between the students and teachers, and the types of educational materials used by the teacher all convey unstated messages to the students about their proper place in society.

Because it is unstated and largely unquestioned, the hidden curriculum will often serve to reinforce existing social inequality, perpetuating attitudes about the status of different social groups and providing a barrier to social change.

Question 4

Teacher expectancy 1

Answer 4

Teacher expectancy refers to the idea that the attitudes toward—and expectations of—students that a teacher harbors will affect how those students perform in school.

Under this model of student performance, teachers will first (consciously or unconsciously) assign students to various levels of possible achievement.

The teacher’s subsequent treatment of the students based upon these expectations will convey to the students which behaviors and performances the teacher expects from them.

As students internalize the teacher’s expectations, students will then be more likely to conform to those expectations.

Question 5

Teacher expectancy 2

Answer 5

• expectancy effects tend to be greatest with younger children who are more malleable in self-perception and who have the greatest deference to the authority of the teacher, but all students can be susceptible to expectacny effects
• teacher expectancy is particularly probleamtic in the ways in which it can perpetuate exiting stratification of students by race, class or ethnicity
• if teachers generally expect students from disadvantaged groups to perform lower, then students will, to some extent conform to those expectations perpetuating the existing social structure

Question 6

The US educational system

Question 7

Functionalist perspective

Answer 7

Intended/stated (manifest) goals: socialization, cultural transmission, academic learning.

Unintended/unstated (latent) goals: provides childcare outside of the nuclear family (important because of increase in female participation in labor force and rise of single-parent households), one nutritious meal per day, and opportunities for friendships and courtships.

Question 8

conflict theory perspective

Answer 8

Education system maintains status quo by training individuals for pre-existing roles in society.

Education system achieves this result not just by teaching specific academic or social skills but also by teaching the children where they belong in society and how to properly fit into their given social, political, and economic roles.

Question 9

Family

Answer 9

The organization of the family unit is responsible for structuring many fundamental aspects of any social system.

The family is clearly responsible for patterning sexual relationships, determining reproductive habits, and raising children; because of its relationship to reproduction, family structure is one of the fundamental elements in the perpetuation of a society.

Family structure is also crucial for less-obvious social activities:

1. The care of elderly or disabled individuals often falls upon the family unit.
2. The organization of the family unit in a society can have broad implications for how individuals both work productively and consume goods and services.
3. Family is an important source of social status.

Question 10

Family structure is also crucial for less-obvious social activities:

Answer 10

1. The care of elderly or disabled individuals often falls upon the family unit.
2. The organization of the family unit in a society can have broad implications for how individuals both work productively and consume goods and services.
3. Family is an important source of social status.

Question 11

Forms of kinship

Answer 11

Kinship refers to the interlocking social relationships that surround a particular individual and that determine the individual’s relationships and responsibilities to others.

Kinship is not based solely on biological relationships:

Descent-based kinship refers to kinship based upon biological/reproductive relationships (e.g., parents and children, siblings, or aunts and uncles).

Social connection-based kinship or “affinity” kinship refers to kinship that is based upon other lasting social relationships. Marriage and adoption are both examples of affinity kinship.

Question 12

Diversity in family forms

Answer 12

The definition of the family unit is not as straightforward as it would seem, despite the fact that many

Americans would give a fairly straightforward answer: parents, siblings, and/or a spouse.

There are many other types of families do that not fit this mold. Consider a child raised by their grandparents, or a child without parents or siblings raised in foster homes.

In different societies, cultures, or subcultures, the sense of family may be different. Family may include only the nuclear family (parents and children) or may include extended family (grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, etc.). Or family may take an unconventional form, such as the families found in systems of polygamy or polyandry.

Question 13

marriage

Question 14

Divorce

Answer 14

Divorce refers to the formal, social dissolution of the marriage bond.

Divorce has become increasingly common in the U.S.

No firm conclusions have been drawn about this societal change, as sociologists continue to actively debate its meaning and significance.

Question 15

Family violence

Answer 15

Family violence refers to all forms of abuse that may occur between individuals in the same family.

It encompasses not just spousal abuse, but also child abuse and elder abuse, as well as all other violent acts between family members.

Family violence is one of the major precipitating factors in divorce.

Question 16

definitions of religion 1

Answer 16

1.Sacred vs. profane: this definition, first proposed by the theorist Émile Durkheim, considers religion to be concerned with those things thought to be above or apart from everyday experience.

The sacred versus the profane is not a dichotomy of good versus evil.

• The “sacred” consists of things that are holy or venerated; according to Durkheim, it is those things that are “superior in dignity or power…absolute.”
• The “profane” consists of commonplace, everyday things; all other things that are not sacred.

Thus, mundane or ordinary things (the profane) are not part of religious life, but rather, it is those things that are given special reverence (the sacred) that mark out religious beliefs.

Question 17

sacred vs profane 2

Answer 17

The problem with this theory is that it is overly broad.

Many individuals may give special, even reverential, attention to objects or pursuits that would not normally be considered religious.

–>Consider, for example, passionate collectors’ attitudes towards their collections, or many people’s strong patriotic feelings towards the flag and other symbols of their country. In each case, there are strong, reverential feelings attached to particular objects or beliefs, but most people would agree that they are not religious.

Question 18

definitions of religion 2

Answer 18

Existential questioning: this definition posits that religion is fundamentally the endeavor of trying to understand the purpose and meaning of human life. (A leading existentialist was Jean-Paul Sartre.)

• Again, this definition seems inadequate because it can omit those who might normally be considered to be religious (e.g., an individual who attends church weekly, but does not think about existential questions) and include those who would not normally be included (e.g., an atheist who believes that there is no life after death but thinks deeply about such questions).

Question 19

definitions of religion 3

Answer 19

Beliefs, values, and practices that a group associates with supernatural phenomena: this definition considers religion to be essentially concerned with supernatural phenomena and defines religion to be the set of beliefs and rituals of a particular group that arise in relation to a perceived supernatural world.

• This definition is not without problems, but it is closest to most people’s general perception of what constitutes a religion.

Question 20

Religiosity

Answer 20

Religiosity refers to a measure of the dedication of a person or population to the practices and beliefs of a religion.

Religiosity does not generally refer to adherence to a particular religion, but rather just the dedication to some religion.

Adherence to a particular religion or a set of spiritual beliefs does not always manifest itself in the same way, but religiosity generally has three fundamental components: behavioral, cognitive, and spiritual.

Question 21

Religiosity 2

Answer 21

The behavioral component refers to the degree to which an individual participates in the rituals and practices associated with their religious beliefs.

The cognitive component refers to the ability of an individual to articulate a particular set of religious beliefs.

The spiritual component of religiosity refers to the degree to which an individual experiences a connection with the sacred or the presence of a higher power.

Question 22

types of religious organizations

Question 23

church

Question 24

Denominations

Answer 24

Denominations emerge when a church loses its hold on the entirety of a society’s religious life.

A denomination is one religion among many.

Generally, denominations will be linked to the political and economic life of a society, but they will neither be as tightly bound nor as influential as a monopolistic church would be.

Similarly, denominations are more tolerant of other religions and other worldviews, as they must coexist in society with other denominations.

Example: Lutheranism in Germany, where the Catholic Church also holds significant sway.

Question 25

sect

Answer 25

A sect is a group that exists to protest the beliefs or practices of its parent religion (usually a denomination).

Typically, a sect will arise because of accusations that the parent religion is no longer authentic and that there must be a return to the “true” religion.

Example: Mystical Sufi sects, or hardline Wahhabist, sects of the Sunni Islamic denomination.

Question 26

cult

Answer 26

A cult is a similar to a sect in that it advocates a break from tradition, but the concepts of cults and sects can be distinguished because a cult generally refers to a group whose religious beliefs are new.

Cults do not advocate a return to some “true” religion like a sect, but rather will attempt to formulate a new set of religious beliefs and practices.

Although the word “cult” has a derogatory connotation in casual usage, it is not intended that way in sociological terminology.

Many of the major world religions began as cults (e.g., Islam, Christianity, and Buddhism).

• Example: the first Christians were ethno-religiously Jewish adherents of Jesus and his teachings.

Question 27

modernization with religion and social change

Answer 27

Modernization refers to the process by which societies go through various stages of increasing rationalization and plurality.

In particular, modernization considers societies to pass from “pre-modern” to “traditional” and finally to “modern” stages.

In general, through the process of modernization, society becomes organized more according to logical principles and less according to the needs of family, religion, or other social institutions.

Question 28

part of religion and social change

Secularization

Answer 28

Secularization is the broad decline in religiosity of a society as it modernizes.

• Secularization can be used to refer to many aspects of this transformation.

For example, the secularization of social institutions would refer to the change in attitudes about the institutions’ purpose, mission, and affiliation. Institutions that were previously thought to be primarily religious in character eventually come to be considered to be separate from religion.

However, the secularization of a population would generally refer to the decline in religious belief and adherence in the individuals making up that population.

Question 29

Fundamentalism

part of religion and social change

Answer 29

Fundamentalism refers to groups that seek to return to the purported original or founding nature of their religious doctrine.

In general, fundamentalist groups resist association with the larger groups from which they arise, claiming that such larger groups have become tainted or have lost sight of their original nature and purpose.

Fundamentalism is typically associated with strong beliefs in literal adherence to various scriptures, texts, or founding documents of the religion and as such, fundamentalism is also associated with an intolerance of debate and an incompatibility with religious pluralism.

Question 30

Functionalist perspective

for religion

Answer 30

By appealing to the supernatural aspects of experience, religion offers individuals a means to answer existential questions and thereby reduce anxiety about the meaning, nature, or purpose of their lives.

Religion also promotes group unity through (1) social rituals and practices that its members share and (2) the hostility and prejudice that religious beliefs may engender against outsiders.

Durkheim claims that religion frequently serves a source of legitimacy for the society in which it develops.

Thus, from a structural functionalism perspective, religion serves as a form of public, communal affirmation of the existing social system and therefore helps to bind people together and promote the stability of existing social order.

Question 31

Symbolic interactionism perspective

Answer 31

The symbolic interactionism perspective posits that a set of practices, beliefs, and/or experiences will not

be considered scared until and unless members of a society regard these practices and beliefs as such.

From the symbolic interactionism perspective, Max Weber argues that religion is responsible for shaping individual orientation toward the world and that this engendered orientation will in turn have social, political, and economic consequences for those individuals and society as a whole.

The nature of the beliefs that individuals have about the sacred domain can influence their behavior in other areas of life.

Religious beliefs can interact with and alter non-religious social, political, and economic institutions.

Example: Islamic prohibitions on collecting interest affects banking systems in the Islamic world.

Example: Biblical verses regarding homosexuality have prevented or slowed legalization of full marriage equality everywhere.

Question 32

Conflict theory perspective

for religion

Answer 32

Religion plays a predominant role in justifying the political status quo by conflating sacred legitimacy with political authority and making political opposition seem heretical.

Religion tends to conceal the true sources of social problems and discourages people from taking actions to correct those problems.

Question 33

government and economy

Answer 33

• Politics is the process whereby power in a society is distributed, control over a community is established, and collective decisions are made.
• More narrowly, politics can refer to the process of organizing and achieving a system of government for a particular society.

Question 34

Power

Answer 34

Power is the ability of individuals or groups to carry out their desires and exact compliance from others even in the face of opposition.

• Power is overtly derived from a spectrum of sources with authority on one end and coercion on the other:

Power imbued with authority is viewed as legitimate by those over whom it is exercised; those individuals subject to an authoritative source of power recognize its right to impose penalties or to use force in order to impose its will.

Power created by coercion is considered illegitimate; coercive power is generally created by violence or threat of violence and compliance to this kind of power is achieved because of fear.

Power based upon authority is generally considered to be a stable, long-term basis for a political system.

Power based upon coercion is an unstable foundation and political systems reliant on this type of power will be difficult to maintain.

Question 35

Authority (Max Weber)

Answer 35

Authority has three basic types, as identified by Max Weber:

Legal-rational authority derives from the system of laws and rules established by society.

In this context, power is acquired by individuals and organizations based upon their legitimate participation in the legal or administrative system.

Officials are elected or appointed based upon known, commonly accepted legal mechanisms. Traditional authority is based upon continuity with the past.

This type of authority is considered legitimate simply because it has been considered legitimate previously.

Typically, this form of authority is inherited from one generation to the next (e.g., a hereditary monarchy).

Question 36

charismatic authority

Answer 36

Charismatic authority is derived from the charisma and popularity of a leader who is considered worthy because of mystical abilities, exceptional heroism, prophecy, or other extraordinary attributes.

Charismatic authority is derived from a leader’s ability to inspire fidelity in, and compel allegiance from, their followers.

Charismatic authority most often arises during times of crisis when many people lose faith in the existing system and perceive the charismatic leader as offering an alternative superior to the status quo (e.g., Hitler, Lenin).

• Charismatic leaders can sometimes be decent human beings (e.g., Mother Teresa, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.).
• The major challenge faced by charismatic leaders is sustaining their authority beyond the period of crisis.

Question 37

authority 3

Answer 37

• These types of authority are not mutually exclusive and quite frequently, authority in society will shift from one source to another.
• For example, revolutionary movements which derive power from the charismatic authority of a leader will often attempt to shift the source of authority to the legal or bureaucratic system after the revolution ends or the leader dies.

Question 38

Legal-rational authority

Answer 38

Legal-rational authority derives from the system of laws and rules established by society.

In this context, power is acquired by individuals and organizations based upon their legitimate participation in the legal or administrative system.

Officials are elected or appointed based upon known, commonly accepted legal mechanisms.

Question 39

Traditional authority

Answer 39

Traditional authority is based upon continuity with the past.

This type of authority is considered legitimate simply because it has been considered legitimate previously.

Typically, this form of authority is inherited from one generation to the next (e.g., a hereditary monarchy).

Question 40

the state….

Answer 40

The state is an organized community with territorial boundaries that shares a common institutional system for organizing the distribution of power and for governance of the population.

• The state and its government have many functions in society including establishing laws, providing social control, ensuring economic stability, setting collective goals, and protecting against outside threats.

Question 41

Types of State

Answer 41

Autocracy refers to a government in which all political power rests in a single individual (e.g., a king or queen).

Totalitarian refers to a state in which the government holds control over all aspects of life, not just the political aspects.

Democracy refers to a state in which all members of society are allowed to participate in the choice of government in the distribution of political power.

Question 42

Economy

Answer 42

Economy is the production, dissemination, and consumption of resources, goods, and services.
• Economy and government are intimately linked, as one of the primary responsibilities of the state is to ensure sufficient stability to sustain reliable, continuous economic activity.

Question 43

1 kind of economy

capitalism

Answer 43

Capitalism is a system of economic organization in which the state does not own any means of production, but rather all corporations are privately held and operated for profit.

• Underlying this system is the idea that if individuals and corporations selfishly seek to maximize their own benefit, society will achieve an optimal distribution of resources.

Question 44

2. kind of economy

socialism

Answer 44

Socialism, by contrast, is a system in which some of the means of production is collectively owned and the economy is centrally managed.

The main driving idea behind a socialist economy is that production should be driven by the utility generated by the goods and services produced, and not by the opportunity to derive profit from them.

A socialist economy does not rely on the self-interest of individuals to distribute resources efficiently, but rather uses collective planning and management.

Question 45

Division of Labor

Answer 45

Division of labor refers to the separation of the different elements of the production of various goods and services.

• The division of labor is a crucial development in the productivity of economies, as it allows for increasing specialization of production, and therefore more efficient distribution of resources.

Question 46

Health and Medicine

Answer 46

One of the most important sociological insights into health and medicine is that the experience of illness is not a purely biological phenomenon.

Illness is not just a physical manifestation of a particular biological anomaly, but instead the entire experience of the particular problem that an individual is experiencing.

Illness not only encompasses the biological underpinnings of disease, but also touches upon the social roles and behaviors that accompany the underlying disease.

Because a sociological understanding of illness considers all aspects of illness, and not just biological determinants, sociologists necessarily examine a particular society’s conception of the sick role.

Question 47

the sick role

Answer 47

The sick role refers broadly to the special position in society occupied by individuals who are considered to be ill.

• The sick role encompasses both the expectations of the broader society for the sick individual and the obligations of the sick person to the rest of society.
• For example, we will typically excuse sick individuals from normal obligations such as school or work, but we also expect that person to seek out the appropriate medical care and make every effort to get better.
• Similarly, while we generally do not view disease as the fault of the individual (although there are exceptions to that general principle), society requires that the individual view the disease as undesirable and unpleasant in order to avoid being labeled lazy.

Question 48

Medicalization

Answer 48

Medicalization refers to the social transformation of certain human conditions from concerns of familial, political, or religious structures to objects of study by the medical profession.

Medicalization most often occurs to behaviors and statuses that are considered deviant (e.g., alcoholism), but some normal human processes (e.g., childbirth) also undergo medicalization.

Question 49

Delivery of Health care

Answer 49

• Delivery of health care refers to the manner in which professionals and nonprofessionals come together to provide all variety of health-related services for a society.
• Sociologists are particularly interested in the manner in which health care is delivered because it reveals how a particular society conceives of disease and illness.
• In the U.S., health care is largely delivered by acute intervention with less emphasis on preventative or palliative medicine.
• Physicians are viewed as agents of diagnosis and treatment and are generally not tasked with preventing disease or maintaining health in the broader population.
• This attitude, in turn, structures the nature of the therapies that are available, the treatment course for sick individuals, and the way in which physicians are compensated.

Question 50

Social epidemiology

Answer 50

Social epidemiology refers to the study of the social dimensions of health and the ways in which social and cultural factors can influence health and illness outcomes for various individuals.