Individual/Society COPY Flashcards

Question

REMEMBER 1

Answer 1

Freud and Erkison= PERSONALITY how personality develioped

Answer 2

Vygotsky and Kohlberg how cognition develops, theories heavily influenced by cognitive theories! broad interview of different stages of development from 4 main and different perspectives focus on these 4, keep in mind similarities and differences

Answer 3

psychosexual theory of development proposed psychosexual development takes place in psychosexual stages, tension adn pleasure is what life is buitl around, build up of tension causes a lot of issues/ conflicts freud's theroy stressed importance of personality development in childhood if fixation ocurs in certain stage in childhood has lasting effects into adulthood, each stage assocaited withparticular conflict has to be resolved in order for person to successfully advance to next stage first 5 years of life are cruical to adult personality

Answer 4

natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of the mind when this energy is stuck or fixated\*\* term need to remember for Freud psychosexual theory of development, when fixation occurs can have lifelong effect well into adulthood

Answer 5

OLD= oral AGE = anal PARROTS= phallic LOVE = latent (or latent period) GRAPES= genital stage

Answer 6

focus of libido=mouth -first stage personality development 0-1 year of age -when libido centered around babies mouth, primary source of interaction through sucking etc eating, derives pleasure from oral stimulation through activities like tasting and sucking, because completely dependent on caretakers responsible for feeding child baby also develops sense of trust or comfort, so mayor development as feeding\* fixation at this stage has issues with dependecy or aggression, so later in adulthood see an oral type of personalty in ppl that smoke, bite fingers or nails, suck thumb, so adult fixation personalitis are of ppl that smoke etc, over eat

Answer 7

anus =1-3 years of age -primary focus centered around anus, controlling bowl movements when child gets older and starts to wheen off from feeding in oral stage, starts to get potty trained, child has to learn how to control bodily fluids, leads to sense of control in accomplishments or independence, make child feel capable or productive, positive experiences in anal stage help serve as basis for feeling competent, creative or productive in adults, not all parents have encouraging approach to potty training adults with fixation at this stage could possibly have problems with ordliness or messiness\*

Answer 8

genitals 3-6 years of age primary focus of genial area for libido, at this age kids can discover the difference btw male and females oedipus complex- believes boy wants to posess mother and replace the father what little boys go through, same thing occurs for females electra complex towards their father, major conflict to resolve oedipus and electra complexes\*\* ususally resolved through process of identification, kid develops characters as same sense parents little boys look up to farthers and little girls look up to mothers, causes sexual dysfunction if not resolved and adult fixation!

Answer 9

no body part 6-12 yers of age socialism, skills no focus of libido here, period in which 12 puberty time of exploration sexual energy libido still present but not really focused on one area of body starting to be directed into other areas intellectual pursuits, social intearctions kids developing new skills, v important in development of social and communication skills, socialism aspect and development of new skills! begins around the time children enter school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies etc, play btw children starts to become largely defined btw kids of same gender, any fixation at this point doesnt really develop into adult fixation

Answer 10

genitals age 12 and above focus back on libido, indidual starts developing strong sexual interests starting to develop sexual maturity, during this stage sexual maturity to opposite sex lasts life to death, in earlier stages focus solely on individual needs or wellfare of others, if all stges completed shoudl be sexually mature and mentally healthy since last step no adult fixation because under assumption all the other stages were completed successfully so assume person mentally healthy, all other stages compelted successfully, individual should be warm adn caring goal establish balance btw various life areas\*

Answer 11

greatly influenced by freud theory but infleunced role of culture and society another key difference btw him and Freud he suggested plenty of room for growth of personality throughout ones life, not just childhood which is what freud emphasized. assumes crisis can occur at each stage of development, conflicts involve differences btw individual and needs of society, so successful completion of all stages results in successful personality

Answer 12

basic virtues characteristic strengths ego can use to resolve future conflicts, failure to complete certain stage can result in reduced ability to move along to future stages and unhealthy personality and sense of self

Answer 13

age 1 crisis= trust versus mistrust; baby uncertain about world they live in, baby looks towards primary care giver and parents for consistent care adn stability, if child has this develop sense of trust and security, hallmark of this virtue is virtue of hope, develop sense of trust infant cna have hope when new crisis arises people will be ther as source of support, failure to requrie virtue can lead to development of suspcion adn fear of mitrust, negative outcome is fear and suspiscion according to Erkison this develops within first year of life virtue = hope outcome (-)= fear, suspicion

Answer 14

2 year, 2 age crisis= autonomy vs doubt/shame around 18 months to the age of 3 kids started asserting dependence walkign away from mother, makign choices abotu what they want to wear or eat, sense of indepdennce or autonomy critical parents allow them to do this adn explore limits of ability within encouraging envrionment obviously rather than putting on child's clothes shoudl have patience allow kid to do it on their own, teach kid to ask for help when they need it, be indepdent but protect kid so failure is avoided hallmark of this stageis sense of independence or own personal will, negative outcome if child is overly criticized or controlled, start lackign self esteem or start feeling doubt in their abilities virtue= will outcome bad= shame

Answer 15

third stage is occurs btw ages of 3-5 years in this stage kids assert themselves even more frequently, initiative versus guilt\* play is essential to this stage, kid in preschool so learn to explore interpersonal skills, initiate and plan activities, start to feel more secure in ability to lead others and feel more secure, kid will asks a lot of more questions, here the virtue the kid will reach is purpose, we feel they have a sense of purpose adn what they do, the choices and decisions they make! if tendency to have curiousity is squelched start to develop guilt, kid thinks annoying so start to act as a follower, so too much guilt can make child really slow in interacting with others and inhibit their creativity\* some guilt is necessary otherwise kid wouldn't have self control\* kids need limits for self control virtue- purpose negative outcome= sense of guilt or feeling inadequate

Answer 16

ages 6-12 (school age to puberty) WHERE TEACHERS TAKE IMPORTANT ROLE IN CHILD"S LIFE, teach skills and kid works towards competence, main thing looked at here is = industry v inferiority -kid gains greater significance or self esteem, try to gain approval by demonstrating capabilities to others like teachers virtue= competence/pride if kid encouraged and initiatives encouraged, start to gain confidence, if restricted then start to think inferior and can't reach full potential so that is the negative outcome inferiority as a result of not feeling like they have competence that society is demanding\* again at this stage some failure may be necessary so child can develop some modesty, need some guilt for kid to have control of actions negative outcome= inferiority need some failure within limits so kid doesn't get too confidence

Answer 17

12-18 now kid more independent want to start feeling like belong to society if they fit in, identity versus role confusion -in this stage kid has to learn roles will occupy as result, may reexamine identity to find out who they are, body image plays a huge role in this, body is changing during this age, explore possibilities based upon outcomes adn start to form identity as result of thsi exploration, failrue to do so can result in things liek kid saying "i idk what I want to do when grow up" so role confusion virtue= fidelity as try to identify who we are negative outcome= role confusion, confusion of who one is and cause rebellion and feelings of unhappiness, hallmarks of negative outcome at stage 5

Answer 18

18- 40 intimacy versus isolation now share ourselves more intimately with others, explore relationships towards longer committments, sense of committment safety or care, avoiding this stage can lead to negative outcomes, loneliness or depression, characterized by love, negative outcomes and lead to inability to form relationships, isolation and unhappiness\* virtue= love neg outcome= isolation, unhappy

Answer 19

age 40- 65 crisis is generation versus stagnation, meaning feeling stuck not progressing - usually adults feel like they give back to society through raising children, productive at work, involved in community activities or organizations, develop sense of care for others\* and the negative outcome that can occur if fail to achieve those objectives is they start to feel stagnant or unproductive virtue= care neg outcome= unproductive

Answer 20

life as retired person, 65+ main crisis is integrity versus despair obvi more wise, ppl feel if lives were productive or unproductive, feel dissatisfied, first the main virtue is having that sense of wisdom, haven't accomplished what we have in life feel unproductive leads to despair and satisfaction upon death success= leads to wisdom, can look back on life with closure and completeness and look back without fear virtue = wisdom neg outcome= dissatification

Answer 21

studied role social interaction plays in development of cognition, focused on social interaction btw children obviously growing, so focused on children in growth development, interaction with ppl around them in development of their cognition and higher order learning

Answer 22

much theory left unfinished he died at 38 said babies have elementary mental functions= MF (mental functions) 4 of them 1. attention 2. sensation 3. perception 4. memory

Answer 23

elementary MF developed into more sophisticated processes/strategies called higher mental functions--\> to higher MF so most of social interaction is through skillful tutors, someone older parents or teacher, acts as model and model behaviors provide verbal instruction to child, child tries to understand functions, internalize it and use it to guide and regulate their own performance\*

Answer 24

can only be cultivated by higher mental structures, acts as tutor or guide through which we model our behavior, so this invovles cooperative or collaborative dialogue which is what promotes hte cognitive ability or development!

Answer 25

Psychologist Jean Piaget proposed that cognitive development occurs in four discrete stages. In the first stage, termed the sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), the individual experiences the world exclusively through sensing and moving through their environment. A key event in this stage is the development of object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even though we are not looking at them.

Answer 26

The next stage is the preoperational stage (ages 2-7). Here, the individual develops symbolic thinking, or the idea that things and ideas can be represented through symbols such as words or gestures. During this stage, children tend to focus on a single aspect of a thing or experience, a phenomenon called centration, and they also display an inability to comprehend conservation, or the idea that a quantity remains the same despite a change in shape. Children in this stage are egocentric, meaning they do not understand that other people have thoughts or perspectives different from their own.

Answer 27

The third stage is the concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11). Here, children develop an understanding of conservation and begin to understand mathematics. They also become less egocentric and can think logically about concrete events and objects, but they still have not developed a full capacity for abstract thought.

Answer 28

Finally, the fourth stage is the formal operational stage (age 12+). Here, people develop the abilities of abstract and moral reasoning.

Answer 29

Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. Erikson posited that each developmental stage is marked by a key conflict; resolution of this conflict promotes healthy development, while a lack of resolution can lead to related problems later in life.

Answer 30

trust v. mistrust

Answer 31

autonomy vs. shame/ doubt

Answer 32

initiative vs guilt

Answer 33

industry versus inferiority

Answer 34

identity vs. role confusion

Answer 35

intimacy vs. isolation

Answer 36

generativity vs. stagnation

Answer 37

ego integrity vs. despair

Answer 38

more knowledgeable other one term Vygotsky defined basically someone who has a better understanding or higher learning level than learner, so MKO has higher level of understanding and ability to whatever task there was at hand\* had better understanding to put the puzzle together then girl had interaction of myself with the MKO the other person, is what leads to learning and what also leads to higher mental functions and independence\*

Answer 39

ZPD this is part where most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given if doing a puzzle in zone of proximal development because most sensitive to information father giving us btw ability to be able to do something and not be able to do something, that zone of guidance allowed me to expand set of skills I had to more expanded skills learning going on beyond what I already know, what develops these mental functions! link btw zone of what we can do and zone of what we ca't do, its the area most sensitive to instruction or guidance allows learner or child to develop skills they aleady have and go beyond into areas they cannot do to expand that learning! if cant solve zigsaw puzzle by myself when little, but can do it following interaction with father, invovles interaction with MKO and eventually develop competence of that skill that can also use in future\*\* that area is what represents all of our learnign and development

Answer 40

language is the main means by which adult transmit info to children -very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation -most children engage in private speech, way to plan strategies active speaking to themselves and talking out loud, therefore an accelerator to thinking and expanding -so kids who engage much more private speech are actually much more socially competent then kids who do not use language out loud, do believes language develops from social interactions for communication as grow older becomes internalized which is our inner speech, thought result of language ability to think for ourselves and develop indepence of executing skills comes from importance of language from Vygotsky

Answer 41

moral theory of development -theory based upon cognitive development, so similar to vygotsky in that respect -how ppl develop morals v overall emotional and physical development throughout life -looked to understand moral reasoning changed as people grew, so way he actually did this is interesting, looked at kids (common among other theorists talked about) all looked at kids because that is where most fascinating growth occurs is during adolescent period, told a bunch of children many dilemma situations, told this to kids of all ages asked many questions to figure out how they reasoned through these issues most famous situation is Mr. Heinz some story in Europe

Answer 42

Mr. Heinz called Heinz dilemma, couldn't afford medicine for wife so broke in and stole the drug asked kids tons of questions about this, after compiling and analzying all responses he analyzed 3 distinct levels of moral reasoning 1. pre-conventional or pre-moral phase 2. conventional stage 3. post-conventional stage think of this as ladder of morality!can only pass through levels in order listed, each new stage replaces reasoning typical of earlier stage, also said not everyone achieves the last stage each level further split into 2 levels so all together 6 stages of morality development\*\*\*

Answer 43

1. obedience versus punishment kids see rules as fixed or absolute obeying rules is a means to avoid punishment, if child is good, they will avoid being punished by their parent, if they are punished they must have done something wrong! 2. individualism and exchange= children recognize not just one right view handed down by authorities, start to understand different individuals have different view points once pass through these stages can move up ladder into conventional stage, at conventional stage there are two more steps!

Answer 44

3. good boy / good girl authority is internalize but not question, reasoning based on norms of group the person belongs to, all about good boy and good girl\* what this means is kid or individuals good in order to be seen as good by other people, nw talking about other people's thoughts or accounts, being nice and having that consideration of how choices influence relationships 4. Law and order= child becomes aware of the wider rules of society\* so judgments concern, obeying rules to uphold the law and uphold guilt

Answer 45

stage 5. social contract in this phase individual judgment based on self chosen principles, beyond law and order think higher level, justice for greater good- individual aware rules and laws exist for good of greater number of people, times this law and order may work against particular work of people, in Heinz dilemma was protection of life worth breaking law to steal, according to this yes protection of life is more important than breaking law and stealing at level 4, important for maintaining society but members that reach this level realize society needs to agree upon these standards and sometimes law needs to be broken to obtain these morals values

Answer 46

stage 6. universal ethical principle ppl have own set of moral guidelines at this stage, may or may not fit law principles apply to everyone, human rights, justice and equality, person who upholds and believes in this in equality has to uphold and believe in these principles even if it goes against rest of society and go through consequences prison, etc , universal rights of equality for all ppl even if goes against law of society at one time, still upheld this and prepared to pay consequences law would put against them the restraints so they are the ones that have the highest level of morality\* Kohlberg believed very very few ppl reached this stage- think Gandhi one person who reached this stage, put into prison many times, Nelson Mandela, MLK

Answer 47

1. begins with understanding difference btw ourselves our own bodies and others doesn't occur until a few months, few years into childhood, while other theorists say it happens once we are born\* 2. Andrew Melzoff 1977 published study questioning understanding btw self and others happens few months after birth 3. He found babies imitating experimenter sticking out their tongue versus opening mouth for some other reason, not a reflex or just because of our present, its when we stuck out our tongue when baby had passifer in mouth experimenter stuck out tongue baby still imitated them 4. last condition in experiment, experimenters facial expression had to be blank b/c subtle differences had to be controlled just incase to assure true imitation was actually occurring\* so social creatures btw 12-21 days baby has concept of themselves own bodies in relation to others and can copy other ppl, suggests we are born with built in capacity to imitate others\*\* so much of what we learn early on is from eachother\*\* suggests built in mechanism important for our species\*

Answer 48

fasciated scientists what they do is when one fires when we act another is fired when we observe the same action performed by another person, essentially motor neurons mirroring other found in somatosensory cortex or motor cortex, helpful in understanding imitation further\*

Answer 49

accepted standards of behaviors of social groups, norms defining appropriate behavior for every social group\* as one moves from the next to the next norms change\*

Answer 50

any group to which we can go to, or a person refers to through the groups beliefs or their attitudes\* or their behaviors\* we are constantly looking for these external groups aligned with our own beliefs or attitudes and behaviors\*, like social science student reference group during election, or feminist reference group deciding to change name after married any person or group serves as point of comparison for individual in formation of general or specific values influences our specific decisions, like going to go get a car going to bring reference group with you, subconsciously have attitudes and beliefs formed, where seek to satisfy expectations of others to get some approval or reference group some level of aspiration\*

Answer 51

only certain ppl can influence our perception of life, changes across the lifespan of others who would influence us believed young kids see themselves as focus of own world, don't care what other people see about them and lack ability to take perspective of another person\* very similar to Piaget's concept of ego centrism balance of both the I and the me also as we grow up beliefs about how other people perceive us become more important 1. preparation stage= imitation 2. play stage= pretend play 3. game stage = generalized other, multiple roles, significant others

Answer 52

view of ourselves not only from direct contemplation of our qualities but also of our perceptions of how we are being perceived by others 3 steps= 1. imagine how appear to others (family or friends) 2. how they must evaluate us based on their observations of us, do we come across as shy or awk 3. develop theories about ourselves based on our impressions of their evaluations and observations we are not actually being influenced by opinions of others\*\* but influenced by what we imagine other's opinion to be, so can develop our self theory baed on correct and incorrect feelings of how ppl feel about us!

Answer 53

Cooley and mead are sociologists (other ppl can play a role in how we view ourselves) everyone a person interacts with during our lifespan can influence our identity income way or another\*\*\* mead thinks more restrictive only certain ppl can influence our perception of life and only during particular periods and changes across life span -mead believed other young children not actually influenced by others in another way, focus of own world don't care what other ppl think of them, lack ability to even take perspective of another person\*\* familiar with developmental psychology very similar to piaget's egocentrism as grow up beliefs from others are more important!

Answer 54

way of protecting and enhancing our own self esteem, much more common in individualistic cultures, like Europe and North America -if succeed down to our own internal/ personal qualities, if we fail there is no hit on our self esteem because more likely to do with things outside of our control, so individualistic societies tend to demonstrate a greater degree of this self serving bias, mechanism to protect own self esteem particular important in individualistic societies because of emphasis on individual success

Answer 55

negative stereotype--\> reduced task performance ! when exposure to negative stereotype surrounding a task can cause a decrease in performance of an individual when attempting that task, so here the stereotype actually threatens performance\*

Answer 56

cognition actually stereotyping, if don't like a group of ppl will not spend a lot of time with them, probably avoid them if say city dwellers are rude, attach an affective component to this I dont' like them, now this moves from stereotyping to prejudice then start to avoid them from affective, now I will avoid them, when avoid them demonstrating a behavioral component then actually moving from prejudice to discrimination\*\*\* so as can se here difference btw stereotyping prejudice and one of cognition, affect and behavior!

Answer 57

I will avoid city dwellers, they think I am rude, they may not like me they avoid me, now they have cognition, affective not like me and avoid me behavioral to say initial thought/cognition that city dwellers were rude becomes more true every time by own actions, our initial stereotype city dwellers were rude becomes more true as perceive them to be ruder and ruder over time, positive feedback and self fulfilling prophecy

Answer 58

1.cognition (stereotype) 2.affective 3. tendency to lead to behavior (once act on behavior turns into discrimination) when prejudice leads to behavioral change!

Answer 59

ppl with this personality are pretty militaristic in some ways, listen to their superiors, obedient to their superiors but on the other hand do not have much sympathy or caring for ppl they deem inferior to themselves, can be pretty oppressive to those beneath them\* rigid and inflexible with their view points, one thing we think about authoritarian personality perhaps had quite harsh upbringings, probably underwent a lot of disciplining themselves -ppl with this authoritarian personality use prejudice to help them cope with their world view, its actually protective of their ego, prejudice avoids them to have to confront unacceptable aspects of themselves, always focusing on other people how other ppl behave and act don't like other ppl, quite controversial and not everyone agrees with this jack boot personality type\* personality type very hard to change, to reduce prejudice by authoritarian personalities quite difficult

Answer 60

obedient to superiors oppressive rigid and inflexible harsh, disciplined upbringing

Answer 61

frustration turns into aggressive impulses ex. work low pay job get angry and aggressive, start to get aggressive towards your employer for giving you such a crummy low pay job one challenge get really aggressive to employer may lose job, may not want that, if don't become aggressive to employer bottles up aggression keeps mounting up, so some ppl take aggression and re-channel it somewhere else, so instead of employer re-channel toward minorities much more acceptable because when do that wont lose job can display out aggression to other ppl, minoroities and other racial groups, doing something called scapegoating, doing something taking frustration turning aggression, instead of employer or other figure channel it to other figures seen this in particular times of economic hardship or disadvantages

Answer 62

suggests ppl become v frustrated and get upsurge of prejudice and discrimination when ppl feel deprived of something they feel entitled to, discrepency of what their expectations are and what they get if our expectation is living standards inc gradually over time, this is what we expect, what we actually get is that living standards don't inc over time actually tend to drop off because of economic problems left with a difference, this difference is the relative deprivation, extent and how quickly that relative deprivation comes about can lead to collective unrest and upsurge in prejudice and also discrimination\*\* behavioral component that can occur after prejudice so linked to frustration aggression hypothesis

Answer 63

assumption world is just and therefore ppl often get what they deserve, meaning good things happen to good ppl and bad things happen to bad ppl ppl in high social class say ppl bore are lazy, if worked harder may be successful too, results in prejudice and discrimination, can vote against welfare programs that aid the poor

Answer 64

stereotypes- mentally ill are violent (cognition prejudices- they scare me! (affect or emotion) discrimination- I wont hire them! behavior

Answer 65

primacy bias

Answer 66

you're only as good as your last game! recent impression or data is also very important

Answer 67

kid in class who can do no wrong, teacher thought kid good all the time whether they actually were good depends if overall perception is some is outstanding may think other traits or skills they have is outstanding whether we have the evidence to suggest that or not attractiveness also if someone is very attractive may think someone is very kind or good leaders or hospitible even if no evidence to support that\*\*\*

Answer 68

also referred to as reverse halo efect, when if we have a very negative overall impression or one attribute very negative about a person can carry over into other ways we see other attributes of a person, other ways our perception of individual can be changed, here reduction in perceived skills, kid in class that can do no wrong teacher sees halo kid who only could do wrong maybe reverse halo effect or devil effect occurring with teacher viewing their actions

Answer 69

noble actions are rewarded evil actions always punished "cosmic justice" at play can think this way because helps individuals to really rationalize good fortune or misfortune, helps in own mind to explain why other ppl may be doing well or badly, also helps individuals feel can influence the world in a very predictable manner, much easier to plan for future and engage in goal driven behavior, if put effort and hours in, if i go to school and do the right thing I will get rewarded in life\*

Answer 70

not always true, blaming ppl who are in poverty poor for ppl who are victims so one thing know about just world hypothesis challenged on daily basis, world simply isn't fair, and what we know is that when we see world isn't fair and we see good deeds being punished or evil deeds being reward we need to make sense of that so can do that in many different ways to explain behavior of other ppl- attribution theory split up to internal causes and external causes, just world hypothesis seems to over attribute ppls' actions to personal or dispositional factors and under recognizes complex situational factors that may be at play here\*\*\* for example, if we see someone v poor may think these are personal failings for not taking responsibility for their own actions rather than recognizing complex social and environmental pressures placed upon them\*

Answer 71

rational techniques 1. accept reality 2. prevent or correct injustice (petition, legal system) Irrational techniques 1. denial (refusing to accept that we have seen a situation or situation exists) 2. reinterpret events, if seen somebody who is a victim of violence, instead of saying hurt nice person challenges just world, reinterpret outcome more trip or fall not really assaulted could have happened to anyone, reinterpret cause walking in really tough neighborhood, reinterpret character of victim, always thought really good human being now probably isn't, morally not sure what kind of person she is, that is why these events happen

Answer 72

judging own culture to be superior to others\*

Answer 73

=no right absolute or wrong, but we have different cultures who are themselves valid\*\* and equal, can falter if someone uses it to conduct activities that really violate rights and dignity of fellow human beings no matter what culture they are in or from\* something important for us to consider\* opposite of ethnocentric as start to look at culture events, whether food or cultural phenomenum from perspective of other person's culture we start to move into concept of cultural relativism\*

Answer 74

Us in group favoritism share what we have, very friendly toward ppl in our in group

Answer 75

decision making machine that is the group makes decisions that are more extreme\* then any individual members would be inclined to make, so groups opinions, actions and decision making should become more extreme than what individual members wanted, can effectively turbo charge any other processes going on, and also turbo charge groups viewpoints for ex if think insects pests do they set up fumagation society in neighborhood

Answer 76

out group = them super friendly and nice to our in group, but when it comes to the out group we are not so friendly we are actually mean and may actually discriminate -do this if feel out group is trying to undermine or stop our in group from achieving success

Answer 77

People use their common sense to understand behavior. Observers decide whether to attribute a behavior to the internal state (disposition/character) of the person who performed it or the external state (situation/context). The person who cut in line was observed as rude, disrespectful, and selfish--all internal dispositions. Therefore it is an internal attribution.

Answer 78

People use common sense to understand behavior. If John believed that the car broke down because of his lack of understanding of cars, then it is an internal attribution. However, John believes that the breakdown of the car is explained by an external factor--his car is old. Therefore, this is an example of external attribution.

Answer 79

= covariation model This is a type of attribution theory. This is a model for judging whether a particular action should be attributed to some internal characteristic of the person or the external environment. Perceivers use multiple observations to arrive at a conclusion about the cause(s) of a behavior. In the covariation model, you (the perceiver) use multiple observations (actor, object, context) to determine the cause of the yelling behavior.

Answer 80

self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 81

a baseball coach believes John is better than his teammate Tim. John is praised more, and more time is spent with John during practice. At the end of the season, other teammates noticed that John has become a better player than Tim. In a self-fulfilling prophecy, the perceiver has expectations about how target will behave. In a self-fulfilling prophecy, the perceiver then behaves in a way that is likely to elicit the expected target behavior. In a self-fulfilling prophecy, the target indeed behaves in a way that confirms perceiver’s expectations. In a self-fulfilling prophecy, the perceiver sees predicted behavior in the outcome. The baseball coach has expectations about how target John will behave. Actual results are observed (John became a better player).

Answer 82

=Symbolic interactionism b/c This approach examines how labels affect perception and create prejudice. This approach argues that labels create selective perception, and they lead us to see certain things while they blind us to others. Symbolic interactionists stress that the labels we learn affect the ways we perceive people.

Answer 83

uncontrollable bad event--\> perceived lack of control--\> generalized helpless behavior ex. nursing home, poverty, homeless etc causes depression\* having a little bit of control over our lives is preferable to no control\*\*

Answer 84

having too many choices can negatively impact or behavior -information overload, feels overwhelming so feel decision paralysis inability to make decision, leads to inc regret over choices they have made, not as confident made right decision\* so control v important, a little bit of control over environment great but too much control and too many choices can have negative impact on our wellbeing\* ex. ppl choice out of 6 brands of chocolate vs 30, ones out of 6 options were way more satisfied, 30 options not as satisfied way less confident with choice

Answer 85

repeated exposure to novel number of ppl, stimuli or things inc our liking of them applies to everything! more se something more likely to like to and rate it better /more favorably than novel things we have not been exposed too

Answer 86

wire mother (chicken wire and feeding tube) or blanket mother, same size and shape of wire mother, but instead of exposed chicken wire soft blanket around it, mother that can provide comfort if food basis of attachment predict kid goes to wire mother because provides food, but if assume based on comfort assume goes to blanket, baby monkeys overwhelmingly go to cloth mother so its comfort not nurishment that forms basis of attachment\*\*\* didn't just go to cloth mother spent a large majority of time spent it clinging to her, when had to eat kept part of body wrapped around cloth mother while keeping contact with cloth mother, didn't want to lose contact or give up that comfort, overtime did become more comfortable with situation to explore cage but always returned to cloth mother, secure base

Answer 87

secure base= secure in knowledge cloth mother not going anywhere, can leave to explore but if got anxious can go straight back, this secure attachment allows cloth mother to act as secure base and makes baby comfortable enough to explore world on its own

Answer 88

mother and kid enter new place, psych lab 1. first part of experiment mother lets kid play around in room while she sits, both sit in room with child but don't interact 2. mother tries to leave room without brining attention to itself, baby left alone with stranger psychiatrist, doesn't say goodbye 3. mother returns to room, end experiment just as started with mother, stranger and kid in room

Answer 89

1. exploration= wanted to see whether or not child explores space when mother present, get up and walk and play with toys or cling to mother 2. how does kid respond when mother leaves? keep on playing or cry? 3. how does kid react when mother returns to room, happy , sad or ignore her all together? can split kids into two main groups= secure attachment and insecure attachment

Answer 90

-kid comfortable to explore room, maybe stayed next to mother for first bit but then felt comfortable enough to explore, sometimes looked at mom or came back to her but in general comfortable to do it on their own -when she left very upset when noticed absence, but distress goes away when mother returns, kids usually went to her and wanted contact with her KEY DISTRESS GOES AWAY WHEN MOM RETURNS

Answer 91

-kids first brought in just like securely attached kids clinged to mother, but they tended to stay with mother and NOT explore room -when mother left kids got really upset like securely attached kids but unlike securely attached children that distress does not end when she returns, they were upset when she went away but not soothed by presence

Answer 92

other attached kids also showed avoidant behaviors not upset when mother left and indifferent when she returned\*

Answer 93

-mother sensitive and responsive to infants kids secure attachment -mothers unresponsive to kids insensitive to kids, kids formed insecure attachments not child abuse or neglect, would attend to kids but tended to ignore them at other times\* can see for yourself when observe parent and kid interactions, how often is parent looking at phone when kid trying to get parent's attention, do they continue to look at it as kid gets attention.

Answer 94

insecure anxious about relationships as adults, or avoid being too attached to one person secure attachment are secure in relationships attachment style as infants seems to impact relationship have with own kids secure attachment with parents tend to have secure attachment with their kids, and same with insecure

Answer 95

physical or verbal all counts as aggression comes from combination of biology, psychology and social-cultural (react more aggressive in groups then by themselves\*)

Answer 96

genetic component, one identical twin has a violent temper other one is likely to have one as well, same is not true for fraternal twins\*\* has to be genetic impact because breeds of animals can be bred to be aggression -not one area in brain but circuits or areas that code for it\*\* -studies violent criminals found dec frontal lobe activation, correlational but implies those who commit violent actions have trouble inhibiting aggressive behaviors ppl have trouble keeping inside\* -testosterone plays large role in aggressive behaviors, wider face..

Answer 97

reinforcement- modeling, makes more temper tantrums in the future, liekly to be aggressive again, rewarding the kid encourages more temper tantrums in future if parents scream and yell, if parents fight and yell or hit each other kids will demonstrate those behaviors as well; so even if parent never yells at child kid still pays attention to what parent does and picks up behavior by observing them

Answer 98

gain anonymous status around huge group of ppl, if other ppl act poorly you will act poorly like poor behavior on internet, some things ppl say online never dream of saying to another person face to face, those around them modeling poor behavior they tend to display poor behavior as well!

Answer 99

ppl in new situation don't know how to behave, tend to rely on social scripts / instructions provided by society how to act, if play a lot of violent video games it models violent aggressive behavior toward them ,ppl responding in aggressive way so if placed in new situation may rely on social script to know how to act, doesn't say violent media causes aggression

Answer 100

given to you at birth don't change during lifetime, don't have a choice about it like royal family born into immediately given ascribed status of prince princess, v different than achieved status

Answer 101

your decision and your choice, earned through own effort! ex. making olympic team KEY WORD IS IT IS EARNED\*\*

Answer 102

tension btw roles of one single status like a student is role strain role conflict is conflict btw roles of two or more statuses like husband and worker

Answer 103

primary groups close, intimate, long term relationships, very close friends like bridal party, college friends, teammates in college sports, immediate family, brothers and sisters

Answer 104

key thing is short term\* NOT CLOSE, often goal oriented relationships distant family, acquiatances, more formal and goal oriented, like ppl who can help you in future, keep strong relationships, distant family members to keep everyone happy and avoid family drama

Answer 105

Erving Goffman studied ppl and nature of interactions, avoiding ppl in social setting noticed ppl plan conduct want to guide and control how they are seen, want to put forward best presentation they can, explains how we behave as humans in social setting! 2 parts 1. front stage- social setting around a lot of ppl, like a guy who is on the stage and with a bunch of guys trying to make some friends new to a place, invited to baseball game maybe hates baseball but goes because wants to manipulate how seen and gain some clout with fiends, putting on front to audience so ppl think he is cool and likes sports 2. backstage- much more private area of our lives, when the act is over, come off stage in front of social setting, do whatever comes to mind whatever makes you comfortable, maybe only a few ppl know about this. guy from first ex done with baseball game hanging out and being a real guy comes over here and loves hanging out with cat and watching cooking shows doesn't really like sports but no one has to know that about him! much more private area of life, can kick back and relax many ppl dont know about now these two are sort of related, now ppl putting on act in private lives and crossing over to front stage Due to social media, I have cool friends but really now ppl often putting on front and going back on their stage so ppl related that way

Answer 106

-front stage performance put on in social setting -backstage can be yourself and the act is over -tool we use to look appealing is "impression management" =our attempt to control how others see us, this makes sense because we want to be viewed in positive way from those around us, many social situations require different scripts as an actor have to play a different role every time, ex of guy who pretends to like baseball front stage, maybe earlier in life captain of football team so required to get everyone fired up for a game get troops ready and lead team to victory during the weak, but then during weekends volunteers at a hospital and works in patient transport wheeling around and important job to be there for parents comfort them and be there for their situation, offer them any care he can, different than first situation, then next situation goes to school to visit a professor chemistry professor very well connected has his eye on particular school he needs to get into and chem professor can offer him that letter of recommendation so pretends to be interested in her research and goes and does research with her, maybe doesn't care at all, but wants to give that impression to teacher, his plan the whole time is to get that letter of recommendation, after that really really excited asked out girl had crush on for a long time... etc

Answer 107

takeaway here is multiple front stages require a different script, one backstage v private area of his life only a few ppl know about very close to him, so this is where you work on impression management where it is all tied together\* so try on a lot of different outfits before going to hang with friends want to look ok that is all done in backstage, can think of backstage as training area for front stage impression management\* how impression management relates to front stage and back stage

Answer 108

organization discriminating not an individual like professor, government, banks, schools etc ex. brown vs board of education, landmark court case 1954 overturned fact used to be separate but equal schools; brown says even though saying separate but equal not true much more inferior worse education, and being mistreated that is institutional discrimination

Answer 109

professor of chem doesn't like girls so will not let women in his class no matter what, just how he is no women allowed to learn chem, because individual person acting against certain group of ppl based on sex, could have been anything, race religion, etc individual because one person taking action!

Answer 110

KEY WORD IS ACTION/BEHAVIOR\*\*\* =differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities because of race, age, religion etc can occur at individual or institutional level

Answer 111

unintentional, like minority plead guilty to charge didn't commit, now apply to job criminal record comes up, employer has nothing uses information about applicants criminal record, don't intent to discriminate by any means but end up doing so whether individual was guilty or not, but thinks guilt, so unjust verdict potential employer swayed in an unfair way one institutional effecting the other

Answer 112

another kind of unintentional discrimination even though no longer be allowed can have consequences for things in present, like brown vs board of education, she still feels mistreated and it is not going well for her, negative idea from past coming to present and causes minority to feel discriminated against unfairly

Answer 113

attitudes that prejudge a group usually negative and not based on facts, it is how they feel, negative attitude not based on any facts ex sexist ceo, doesnt think women capable of running team

Answer 114

ACTION IS BEING TAKEN BIG DIFFERENCE differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities, with sexist ceo no job promotion for women; acting on the negative attitude ex jews having to wear stars, not just prejudice required to so it, action taken against them, or apartheid system of extreme racial segregation 1948 to 1994, this is action taken against minorities\*

Answer 115

Happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger, disgust Charles Darwin- emotions have adaptive value, newborn baby surprise or frightened act like adults act never taught how to do these things, bodies just react this way, blind ppl similar facial expressions even though obviously never seen it before\* so universal emotions exist

Answer 116

opposite of assortative mating, individuals with different traits . or more diverse more likely to mate, do so at higher rate the strategy that is better is assortative mating despite inbreeding and strengthening traits, it inc inclusive fitness

Answer 117

wants to be able to reproduce and pass on his or her genes close relatives of an individual have similar genes, evolutionarily advantageous, predicts we will behave helpfully and alturistically towards those with individuals similar to our own we are more likely to behave altruistically to those who share same last name as them!

Answer 118

alturism actually inc success of overall group, inc fitness or group around it, making monkey who survives attack more likely to reproduce think abotu monkey who sounds alarm for predator close by, he may die but everyone else lives!

Answer 119

This inequality in the system is what we call social stratification. In this unequal social system, there is often unfair treatment directed against certain individuals or social groups. This is referred to as discrimination. Discrimination can be based on many different characteristics—age, gender, weight, ethnicity, religion, or even politics.

Answer 120

attributing certain sort, certain cognition to group of individuals, over generalizing! can also involve, race, gender, culture, religion! pretty inaccurate so major disadvantage, also advantage because it actually allows us to rapidly assess large amounts of social information/data! so in that case it is a good tool

Answer 121

The representativeness heuristic is the tendency to make decisions about actions or events based upon our standard representations of those events. The closely related availability heuristic is the tendency to make decisions about how likely an action or event is based upon how readily available similar information is in our memories.

Answer 122

Belief bias is the tendency that people have to judge things based not upon sound logic, but upon already held beliefs.

Answer 123

Confirmation bias is a tendency that people have to focus on information that is in agreement with the beliefs they already have, rather than the information that is contrary to those beliefs.

Answer 124

The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to place less importance on the import of a situation or context on behavior, and instead place undue emphasis on dispositional or internal qualities in order to explain behavior. In other words, we have a tendency to think that people are how they act.

Answer 125

Moreover, we often blame our own actions on external situations but the actions of others on personality. This is called the actor-observer bias.

Answer 126

Similarly, self-serving bias is the tendency people have to credit their successes to themselves and their failures either to the actions of others or to situations. Biases can also relate to perceptions of group belonging, as in the in-group bias where people are biased towards those viewed as being part of their in-group.

Answer 127

Biases can also play a role in responses to questionnaires; for instance, social desirability bias refers to the tendency that people have to give socially approved responses to questions in the context of research.

Answer 128

Fundamental attribution This experiment showed that anyone can act in the way the participants did in the right conditions, not because of certain personality characteristics. To assume otherwise is to commit the fundamental attribution error.

Answer 129

The “foot-in-the-door” technique involves getting a person to agree to a small request, like asking them to purchase a small item, followed by making a much larger request.

Answer 130

The opposite approach is often called the “door-in-the-face” technique, wherein the initial request is unreasonably large and is therefore rejected. The initial large request is then followed by a smaller, more reasonable-sounding request that is much more likely to be accepted. Persuasive techniques may include the use of rewards or punishments (social or material), positive or negative expertise, and many others.

Answer 131

**An individual’s self-concept is their answer to the question, “Who am I?”** Self-concept is actually a combination of multiple self-representations, or self-schemas, that evolve over time: 1. Present self-schemas: “Who am I currently in the contexts of school, family life, work, friends, politics, etc.?” 2. Past self-schema: “Who was I five years ago?” 3. Possible future self-schemas: “Who will I become in 10 years?” Note: A schema is a representation of a realm of cognitive concepts (e.g., plans, theories) in the form of a cluster of knowledge or facts. The self-concept is purely descriptive (e.g., “I am a person who gets good grades in school”) and does not include value judgments (e.g., “I am proud to be a good student”; see self-esteem below).

Answer 132

Identity is a representation of who a person is as an individual and as a member of various social groups. Identity can evolve but is perceived to be contiguous over time, i.e., “Twenty-year-old me and 30-year-old me are not exactly the same person, but they are both ‘me’—they have the same identity.”

Answer 133

Personal identity Social identity Cultural identity

Answer 134

Personal identity: what defines me as an individual and makes me unique from other individuals.

Answer 135

Social identity: the part of my identity that is based on my membership in various social groups (e.g., clubs, professional organizations, religious groups).

Answer 136

Cultural identity: the part of my identity that is based on my belonging to a particular culture, defined by cultural signifiers including factors like race/ethnicity, language, interests and attitudes, nationality, religious beliefs, etc.

Answer 137

Forced compliance refers to how an authority figure can cause an individual to act against their best interests. Persuasion backed by authority may be used to encourage compliance. Example: A military leader may insist that soldiers under his command lie about a fatal accident caused by negligence. Soldiers may feel compelled to comply both because of the possibility that not doing so will affect their chances of promotion (and they may be persuaded in this notion by the leader) but also because of the command position of the military leader.

Answer 138

Self-efficacy: **similar to self-esteem but refers specifically to beliefs about one’s ability to achieve goals.** People with high self-efficacy tend to be more motivated to set challenging goals for themselves and work hard to achieve them. Self-efficacy also affects healthy lifestyle choices: people with high self-efficacy are more likely to make healthier but more effortful lifestyle choices (e.g., dieting, exercise) and to set and achieve related goals (e.g., quitting smoking).

Answer 139

Locus of control refers to whether a person believes that they have the power to shape their life and to control the outcome of events that affect them. Internal locus of control: “I am in control of the important events in my life.” External locus of control: “The important events in my life are controlled by factors that I am powerless to influence.”

Answer 140

When a person possesses a strong internal locus of control, their self-esteem and self-efficacy are bolstered when they successfully accomplish a goal, because they feel responsible for the positive outcome. When a person possesses an external locus of control, their self-esteem and self-efficacy will be less affected by success in life because they will tend to attribute that success to an external factor. * Example: “I did not achieve my goal of graduating from college, but that’s only because my professors didn’t like me.”

Answer 141

Erkison stages of psychosocial development: In this model, Joan and Erik Erikson conceptualized identity development in terms of an individual passing through a series of eight stages, each of which is defined in terms of a central conflict that must be reconciled

Answer 142

Lev Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes the importance of teachers and caregivers in guiding a child’s development and enabling the child to learn things that the child could not learn independently at a given age/stage of development. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to the range of things that a child could learn at a given age. At the lower end of the range/ZPD are things the child could learn independently, without guidance. At the upper end of the range/ZPD are things that the child is capable of learning, but only with guidance from a teacher = potential skills (see BH1: Chapter 4: Cognition 1: Cultural and Hereditary Influences).

Answer 143

Prior to Kohlberg, developmental psychologists focused mostly on children’s cognitive development. **Lawrence Kohlberg extended these earlier findings by focusing on the child’s developing the capacity for moral reasoning.** He identified six stages of moral development: Pre-conventional: early childhood Conventional: adolescence and early adulthood Post-conventional: adulthood

Answer 144

Pre-conventional: early childhood A. The obedience/punishment stage: Good and bad actions are understood solely in terms of their effect on child. B. The individualism/self-interest stage: When deciding whether an action is good or bad, the child begins to consider others but only in terms of how others’ interests might affect their own.

Answer 145

**Conventional: adolescence and early adulthood** C. The social role/interpersonal accord stage: The child begins to try to live up to others’ expectations but only because doing so has benefits (“I will not lie because otherwise people won’t trust me.”). D. The law and social order stage: The adolescent learns to obey laws and social conventions because they recognize that laws and conventions are important (“I will not steal because society couldn’t function without respect for property rights.”).

Answer 146

**Post-conventional: adulthood** E. The social contract stage: adults recognize that there is inherent value in respecting others’ opinions and rights; laws are conceived of as fluid social contracts rather than as fixed, rigid, and immutable rules. F. The justice and universal ethical principles stage: adults eventually understand that laws exist to ensure justice and fairness, and one should not necessarily obey or strive to enforce laws that are unjust and unfair; civil disobedience can be good.

Answer 147

The Freudian theory of personality development: Freud believed biological and sociological factors interacted to shape personality. Freud identified three aspects of the mind (or the self) that must work together to ensure proper social interactions and behavior on the part of an individual. “(See BH1: Chapter 6: Behavior I: Personality) A. The “id”: instincts * The “id” is a driver of biological/physiological needs and physical desires. * The id develops first, with infancy. * The id operates according to the “pleasure principle”: the idea that needs should be immediately met. * Freud described the id as “the dark, inaccessible part of our personality.” * A purely id-driven individual would act in any way, socially acceptable or not, to achieve satisfaction of desires.

Answer 148

**The “superego” serves as a conscience, tempering raw carnal desires.** **The superego develops as a child moves from infancy to early childhood.** The superego drives conformity with social standards. A purely superego-driven individual would act in a manner overly constrained by societal norms and expectations. The superego consists of two systems: the conscience (which can drive feelings of guilt) and the ideal self (which is an image of how the individual ought to be). *Self-congruence* increases when there is greater correspondence of the actual self with the ideal self. (This is not necessarily an exclusively Freudian idea.) Freud conceptualized the superego to play the role of censor on repression of inappropriate desires or impulses.

Answer 149

REALITY ## Footnote **The “ego” resolves the conflicts between the id and the superego.** The ego operates according to the “reality principle,” dealing with realistic strategies to achieve personal aims. The ego balances behavior geared at satisfying pure physiological needs with socially acceptable behavioral modes. Freud defined the ego as “the representative of the outer word to the id.” When the ego fails, decision making may become difficult.

Answer 150

George Mead’s “me” and “I”: Mead’s approach to thinking about the self in a sociological context hinged on conceptualizing the mind as the individual’s cognitive space for bringing in ideas, schemas, and frameworks of thought regarding social processes. Mead’s ideas influenced symbolic interactionism Mead posited that community belonging (the playing of various social roles) prefaced the development of individual consciousness informed by other’s perspectives; this notion is in line with many of Durkheim’s ideas. Mead conceptualized the *generalized other* as the notions that an individual may have regarding the thoughts, beliefs, and expectations of others in their community. * The generalized other is the means through which a community effects social control. • Mead conceptualized two “phases” of the self: one which reflects the perspectives and attitudes of the generalized other and one which engages in responses to those attitudes and perspectives.

Answer 151

**The “me” is the social self—the self in the context of a community.** * Mead saw the “me” as the conception of one’s self that arises from internalized interactions with, and attitudes of, other people; the “me” arises from roles or attributes that are ascribed to, or put upon, an individual. “Me” is the self from the perspective of the object. * For example, the “me” could be analogized to the role of playing center on a basketball team (it is the role listed on the team roster).

Answer 152

The “I” is the individual’s response to the “me.” * Mead looked at the “I” as giving the self a sense of freedom, initiative, and creativity; it is the self ’s way of actively asserting identity in response to the surrounding world and the expectations and attitudes of others. “I” is the self from the perspective of the subject. * For example, the “I” could represent the myriad ways that an individual might make a defensive play as a basketball center (blocking a shot, altering a pass, covering a shooter).

Answer 153

**The “me” and the “I” co-exist in a dynamic relationship to one another.** The “me” keeps the “I” from behaving out of line with community expectations. Thus, the “me” acts in the role of Freud’s “censor” concept, and the “I” acts not unlike Freud’s “ego.”

Answer 154

This perspective on self, personality, behavior—and on psychology in general— arose as a response to the recognized limitations to Freudian theory and Skinner’s behaviorism. Carl Rogers and Otto Rank, who separated themselves from Freudian psychoanalysis, were early proponents of the humanistic perspective. **The humanistic perspective emphasizes free will and self-actualization.** This perspective had influence on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.