Individual/Society

Question 1

The “American Dream” is the idea that if a person believes in their ability to apply themselves and work towards their goals, they can achieve success and happiness. Which of the following qualities does the American Dream describe?

Answer 1

self efficacy

Question 2

Amanda is working on a research project that studies the beliefs, cognitions and knowledge that her friends have about themselves. What is her project focused on?

Answer 2

self concept

Question 3

Deindividuation refers to a psychological state that results in non-normative behavior when a person is in the presence of a group. Which of the following typically decreases during the process of deindividuation?

Answer 3

self awareness

Question 4

Andrew is a pre-med student who has an internal locus of control. If he does well on the MCAT, to what is he most likely to attribute his success?

Answer 4

his intelligence and hard work

Question 5

Which of the following parental styles is associated with high self-esteem in children?

Answer 5

authoritative

Question 6

In which of Erikson’s stages of human development does an individual begin to develop a sense of self?

Answer 6

Adolescence

Question 7

According to Freudian theory, where does self-identity develop?

Answer 7

the ego

Question 8

How is the Freudian theory of psychosexual development similar to the Eriksonian theory of human development?

Answer 8

Both theories focus on stages of development that are characterized by a central crisis that must be resolved.

Question 9

Which of the following is a core principle of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of development?

Answer 9

Children are able to reach their highest potential when they are in the presence of skilled and knowledgeable instructors.

Question 10

Carl Rogers

Answer 10

Humanistic 3 important concepts 1. self image 2. self esteem= self worth, how much value do we place on ourselves 3. ideal self= what we wish or aspire to be*

Question 11

social identity

Answer 11

2 parts, personal identity, the things unique to each person personality traits, the other is our social identity* these are groups we belong to in our community* so in order to understand the social identity theory and how we categorize ourself personally and socially a mental process involved, this process involves three steps we use when evaluating ourselves and others in relationship btw social and personal identities personal social

Question 12

self esteem

Answer 12

respect or regard a person has for onself

Self-esteem: an attitude about one’s self-concept (i.e., “How I do I feel about who I am as a person?”).

While the self-concept is purely descriptive (“I get good grades in school.”), self-esteem is value-laden (“I am proud to be a good student.”).

Self-esteem is also based on beliefs about oneself (“I am a loving father.” “I am an effective and respected doctor.”)

Question 13

self efficacy

Answer 13

belief in ones ability to execute course of action required in certain situations, in other words a person’s belief in his or her ability to suceed in a personal situation developed by Bandura for his disadisfaction with overal concept of self esteem, so much moree sepcific than self esteem can have an impact on everything from psychological state to behavior to motivation, virtually all ppl can iden tify goals they wish to accomplish things they want to achieve

Question 14

self concept

Answer 14

self esteem and self efficacy

Question 15

two kinds of self efficacy

Answer 15

strong sense of self efficacy versus someone with weak self efficacy strong: chalelnging problems are tasks to be mastered, RISE

Question 16

strong sense of self efficacy

Answer 16

R=recover I=interests S= sense of commitment strong E= enjoy problems or challenging tasks stronger sense of commitment to interests and activities, recover equickly from setbacks and disapointments

Question 17

weak sense of self-efficacy

Answer 17

F= FAIL A= AVOID L= LOSE L = LACK avoid challenging tasks, believe above their capabiltiies, focus on personal failings or negative outcomes qucikly lose confidence in personal abilities

Question 18

sources of self efficacy

Answer 18

1. master of experience 2. social modeling 3. social persuasion 4. pscyhological responses (person becomes really nervous before speaking in public, learn how to minimize stress and elevate mood for challenging tasks can improve sense of self efficacy)

Question 19

a person with low self esteem…

Answer 19

can have high sense of self efficacy and vice versa perfectionists have this mismatched, low self-esteem and high sense of self efficacy because over critical and negative about themselves and yet still see themselves as quite capable in specific areas

Question 20

locus of control

Answer 20

internal= when a person believes he or she can influence events and their outcomes, attribute their results to their own traits ex. individuals with high intenral locus of control, events coem primarily from own actions, if doesnt perform very well on a test for ex they would blame it on lack of preparedness on their own part, if performed well on test outcome due to their own ability to study external locus of control= blames outside forces for everything, attribute events for environmental traits of causes! ex did poorly on test attribute that outcome to difficulty of test questions, if did well think teacher lenant or they got lucky internal locus of control can determine own destiny rather than fate, happier less depressed adn less stressed

Question 21

Freud 1

Answer 21

psychosexual theory describes how personality developments during childhood, actually believed early childhood was most important age or periods when most of our personalities developed by age of 5 -early experiences play a large role in personality develop and influences behavior later in life 5 stages if 5 stages completed successfully the rest is a healthy personality, certain issues if not resolved at certain stage then something called fixation can happen

Question 22

Erikson 1

Answer 22

psychosocial development theory = personality development occurs throughout an entire lifespan (diff than freud who said childhood) -each stage focused on overcoming a conflict, and success or failure in dealing with these conflicts at this stage impacts overall function of each person proposed 8 stages each face new challenges and stages outcome depends on how ppl handle these challenges

Question 23

Lev Vygotsky 1

Answer 23

sociocultural cognitive development theory, sociocultural heavily influenced by cognitive development, believe learn actively and through hands on experiences - an active process through which we develop, socioculture theory suggests parents, caregivers, peers, cultural beliefs, attitudes and languages are all critical, child internalizes what they get from intearction of others, how us as individuals are influenced by those around us and culture around us, that interaction is what is able to guide children in their own performance and own development, theory stresses improance of social interaction in development of cognitioN! died at age of 38 so many of parts of theory were actually incomplete!

Question 24

Kohlberg 1

Answer 24

moral reasoning or why people think about difference of right versus wrong! he believed that moral reasoning depends on level of cognitive development and proposed that people pass through 3 levels of cognitive development, each three stages further divided into two stages so all together 6 levels, came up with this theory after did lots of research with these kids, after interview kids to find out reasoning behind judgments in each scenario, asked bunch of question try to analyze how tey came to different conclusions and how they solved different scenarios!

Question 25

REMEMBER 1

Answer 25

Freud and Erkison= PERSONALITY how personality develioped

Question 26

REMEMBER 2

Answer 26

Vygotsky and Kohlberg how cognition develops, theories heavily influenced by cognitive theories! broad interview of different stages of development from 4 main and different perspectives focus on these 4, keep in mind similarities and differences

Question 27

Freud 2

Answer 27

psychosexual theory of development proposed psychosexual development takes place in psychosexual stages, tension adn pleasure is what life is buitl around, build up of tension causes a lot of issues/ conflicts freud’s theroy stressed importance of personality development in childhood if fixation ocurs in certain stage in childhood has lasting effects into adulthood, each stage assocaited withparticular conflict has to be resolved in order for person to successfully advance to next stage first 5 years of life are cruical to adult personality

Question 28

libido

Answer 28

natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of the mind when this energy is stuck or fixated** term need to remember for Freud psychosexual theory of development, when fixation occurs can have lifelong effect well into adulthood

Question 29

STAGES remember

Answer 29

OLD= oral AGE = anal PARROTS= phallic LOVE = latent (or latent period) GRAPES= genital stage

Question 30

oral

Answer 30

focus of libido=mouth -first stage personality development 0-1 year of age -when libido centered around babies mouth, primary source of interaction through sucking etc eating, derives pleasure from oral stimulation through activities like tasting and sucking, because completely dependent on caretakers responsible for feeding child baby also develops sense of trust or comfort, so mayor development as feeding* fixation at this stage has issues with dependecy or aggression, so later in adulthood see an oral type of personalty in ppl that smoke, bite fingers or nails, suck thumb, so adult fixation personalitis are of ppl that smoke etc, over eat

Question 31

anal

Answer 31

anus =1-3 years of age -primary focus centered around anus, controlling bowl movements when child gets older and starts to wheen off from feeding in oral stage, starts to get potty trained, child has to learn how to control bodily fluids, leads to sense of control in accomplishments or independence, make child feel capable or productive, positive experiences in anal stage help serve as basis for feeling competent, creative or productive in adults, not all parents have encouraging approach to potty training adults with fixation at this stage could possibly have problems with ordliness or messiness*

Question 32

phallic

Answer 32

genitals 3-6 years of age primary focus of genial area for libido, at this age kids can discover the difference btw male and females oedipus complex- believes boy wants to posess mother and replace the father what little boys go through, same thing occurs for females electra complex towards their father, major conflict to resolve oedipus and electra complexes** ususally resolved through process of identification, kid develops characters as same sense parents little boys look up to farthers and little girls look up to mothers, causes sexual dysfunction if not resolved and adult fixation!

Question 33

latent

Answer 33

no body part 6-12 yers of age socialism, skills no focus of libido here, period in which 12 puberty time of exploration sexual energy libido still present but not really focused on one area of body starting to be directed into other areas intellectual pursuits, social intearctions kids developing new skills, v important in development of social and communication skills, socialism aspect and development of new skills! begins around the time children enter school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies etc, play btw children starts to become largely defined btw kids of same gender, any fixation at this point doesnt really develop into adult fixation

Question 34

genital

Answer 34

genitals age 12 and above focus back on libido, indidual starts developing strong sexual interests starting to develop sexual maturity, during this stage sexual maturity to opposite sex lasts life to death, in earlier stages focus solely on individual needs or wellfare of others, if all stges completed shoudl be sexually mature and mentally healthy since last step no adult fixation because under assumption all the other stages were completed successfully so assume person mentally healthy, all other stages compelted successfully, individual should be warm adn caring goal establish balance btw various life areas*

Question 35

Erik Erikson psychosocial development

Answer 35

greatly influenced by freud theory but infleunced role of culture and society another key difference btw him and Freud he suggested plenty of room for growth of personality throughout ones life, not just childhood which is what freud emphasized. assumes crisis can occur at each stage of development, conflicts involve differences btw individual and needs of society, so successful completion of all stages results in successful personality

Question 36

virtues

Answer 36

basic virtues characteristic strengths ego can use to resolve future conflicts, failure to complete certain stage can result in reduced ability to move along to future stages and unhealthy personality and sense of self

Question 37

stage 1

Answer 37

age 1 crisis= trust versus mistrust; baby uncertain about world they live in, baby looks towards primary care giver and parents for consistent care adn stability, if child has this develop sense of trust and security, hallmark of this virtue is virtue of hope, develop sense of trust infant cna have hope when new crisis arises people will be ther as source of support, failure to requrie virtue can lead to development of suspcion adn fear of mitrust, negative outcome is fear and suspiscion according to Erkison this develops within first year of life virtue = hope outcome (-)= fear, suspicion

Question 38

stage 2 Erkison

Answer 38

2 year, 2 age crisis= autonomy vs doubt/shame around 18 months to the age of 3 kids started asserting dependence walkign away from mother, makign choices abotu what they want to wear or eat, sense of indepdennce or autonomy critical parents allow them to do this adn explore limits of ability within encouraging envrionment obviously rather than putting on child’s clothes shoudl have patience allow kid to do it on their own, teach kid to ask for help when they need it, be indepdent but protect kid so failure is avoided hallmark of this stageis sense of independence or own personal will, negative outcome if child is overly criticized or controlled, start lackign self esteem or start feeling doubt in their abilities virtue= will outcome bad= shame

Question 39

stage 3 Erikson

Answer 39

third stage is occurs btw ages of 3-5 years in this stage kids assert themselves even more frequently, initiative versus guilt* play is essential to this stage, kid in preschool so learn to explore interpersonal skills, initiate and plan activities, start to feel more secure in ability to lead others and feel more secure, kid will asks a lot of more questions, here the virtue the kid will reach is purpose, we feel they have a sense of purpose adn what they do, the choices and decisions they make! if tendency to have curiousity is squelched start to develop guilt, kid thinks annoying so start to act as a follower, so too much guilt can make child really slow in interacting with others and inhibit their creativity* some guilt is necessary otherwise kid wouldn’t have self control* kids need limits for self control virtue- purpose negative outcome= sense of guilt or feeling inadequate

Question 40

stage 4 Erikson

Answer 40

ages 6-12 (school age to puberty) WHERE TEACHERS TAKE IMPORTANT ROLE IN CHILD”S LIFE, teach skills and kid works towards competence, main thing looked at here is = industry v inferiority -kid gains greater significance or self esteem, try to gain approval by demonstrating capabilities to others like teachers virtue= competence/pride if kid encouraged and initiatives encouraged, start to gain confidence, if restricted then start to think inferior and can’t reach full potential so that is the negative outcome inferiority as a result of not feeling like they have competence that society is demanding* again at this stage some failure may be necessary so child can develop some modesty, need some guilt for kid to have control of actions negative outcome= inferiority need some failure within limits so kid doesn’t get too confidence

Question 41

stage 5

Answer 41

12-18 now kid more independent want to start feeling like belong to society if they fit in, identity versus role confusion -in this stage kid has to learn roles will occupy as result, may reexamine identity to find out who they are, body image plays a huge role in this, body is changing during this age, explore possibilities based upon outcomes adn start to form identity as result of thsi exploration, failrue to do so can result in things liek kid saying “i idk what I want to do when grow up” so role confusion virtue= fidelity as try to identify who we are negative outcome= role confusion, confusion of who one is and cause rebellion and feelings of unhappiness, hallmarks of negative outcome at stage 5

Question 42

stage 6 Erikson

Answer 42

18- 40 intimacy versus isolation now share ourselves more intimately with others, explore relationships towards longer committments, sense of committment safety or care, avoiding this stage can lead to negative outcomes, loneliness or depression, characterized by love, negative outcomes and lead to inability to form relationships, isolation and unhappiness* virtue= love neg outcome= isolation, unhappy

Question 43

stage 7 erikson

Answer 43

age 40- 65 crisis is generation versus stagnation, meaning feeling stuck not progressing - usually adults feel like they give back to society through raising children, productive at work, involved in community activities or organizations, develop sense of care for others* and the negative outcome that can occur if fail to achieve those objectives is they start to feel stagnant or unproductive virtue= care neg outcome= unproductive

Question 44

stage 8 Erikson

Answer 44

life as retired person, 65+ main crisis is integrity versus despair obvi more wise, ppl feel if lives were productive or unproductive, feel dissatisfied, first the main virtue is having that sense of wisdom, haven’t accomplished what we have in life feel unproductive leads to despair and satisfaction upon death success= leads to wisdom, can look back on life with closure and completeness and look back without fear virtue = wisdom neg outcome= dissatification

Question 45

Vygotsky sociocultural development 2

Answer 45

studied role social interaction plays in development of cognition, focused on social interaction btw children obviously growing, so focused on children in growth development, interaction with ppl around them in development of their cognition and higher order learning

Question 46

vygotsky- elementary mental functions babies have

Answer 46

much theory left unfinished he died at 38 said babies have elementary mental functions= MF (mental functions) 4 of them 1. attention 2. sensation 3. perception 4. memory

Question 47

vygotsky 3

Answer 47

elementary MF developed into more sophisticated processes/strategies called higher mental functions–> to higher MF so most of social interaction is through skillful tutors, someone older parents or teacher, acts as model and model behaviors provide verbal instruction to child, child tries to understand functions, internalize it and use it to guide and regulate their own performance*

Question 48

higher MF

Answer 48

can only be cultivated by higher mental structures, acts as tutor or guide through which we model our behavior, so this invovles cooperative or collaborative dialogue which is what promotes hte cognitive ability or development!

Question 49

Jean Piaget stage 1

Answer 49

Psychologist Jean Piaget proposed that cognitive development occurs in four discrete stages. In the first stage, termed the sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), the individual experiences the world exclusively through sensing and moving through their environment. A key event in this stage is the development of object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even though we are not looking at them.

Question 50

Piaget stage 2

Answer 50

The next stage is the preoperational stage (ages 2-7). Here, the individual develops symbolic thinking, or the idea that things and ideas can be represented through symbols such as words or gestures. During this stage, children tend to focus on a single aspect of a thing or experience, a phenomenon called centration, and they also display an inability to comprehend conservation, or the idea that a quantity remains the same despite a change in shape. Children in this stage are egocentric, meaning they do not understand that other people have thoughts or perspectives different from their own.

Question 51

Piaget stage 3

Answer 51

The third stage is the concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11). Here, children develop an understanding of conservation and begin to understand mathematics. They also become less egocentric and can think logically about concrete events and objects, but they still have not developed a full capacity for abstract thought.

Question 52

Piaget stage 4

Answer 52

Finally, the fourth stage is the formal operational stage (age 12+). Here, people develop the abilities of abstract and moral reasoning.

Question 53

Erikson’s 8 stages cont….

Answer 53

Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. Erikson posited that each developmental stage is marked by a key conflict; resolution of this conflict promotes healthy development, while a lack of resolution can lead to related problems later in life.

Question 54

approximate age range 0-1 Erikson stage 1

Answer 54

trust v. mistrust

Question 55

approximate age range 1-3 Erikson stage 2

Answer 55

autonomy vs. shame/ doubt

Question 56

approximate age range 3-6 Erikson stage 3

Answer 56

initiative vs guilt

Question 57

approximate age range 6-12 Erikson stage 4

Answer 57

industry versus inferiority

Question 58

approximate age range 12- 20 Erikson stage 5

Answer 58

identity vs. role confusion

Question 59

20 - 40 years Erikson stage 6

Answer 59

intimacy vs. isolation

Question 60

40 to 65 years Erikson stage 7

Answer 60

generativity vs. stagnation

Question 61

65+ erikson stage 8

Answer 61

ego integrity vs. despair

Question 62

MKO

Answer 62

more knowledgeable other one term Vygotsky defined basically someone who has a better understanding or higher learning level than learner, so MKO has higher level of understanding and ability to whatever task there was at hand* had better understanding to put the puzzle together then girl had interaction of myself with the MKO the other person, is what leads to learning and what also leads to higher mental functions and independence*

Question 63

zone of proximal development

Answer 63

ZPD this is part where most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given if doing a puzzle in zone of proximal development because most sensitive to information father giving us btw ability to be able to do something and not be able to do something, that zone of guidance allowed me to expand set of skills I had to more expanded skills learning going on beyond what I already know, what develops these mental functions! link btw zone of what we can do and zone of what we ca’t do, its the area most sensitive to instruction or guidance allows learner or child to develop skills they aleady have and go beyond into areas they cannot do to expand that learning! if cant solve zigsaw puzzle by myself when little, but can do it following interaction with father, invovles interaction with MKO and eventually develop competence of that skill that can also use in future** that area is what represents all of our learnign and development

Question 64

language for Vykosky

Answer 64

language is the main means by which adult transmit info to children -very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation -most children engage in private speech, way to plan strategies active speaking to themselves and talking out loud, therefore an accelerator to thinking and expanding -so kids who engage much more private speech are actually much more socially competent then kids who do not use language out loud, do believes language develops from social interactions for communication as grow older becomes internalized which is our inner speech, thought result of language ability to think for ourselves and develop indepence of executing skills comes from importance of language from Vygotsky

Question 65

Kohlberg 2

Answer 65

moral theory of development -theory based upon cognitive development, so similar to vygotsky in that respect -how ppl develop morals v overall emotional and physical development throughout life -looked to understand moral reasoning changed as people grew, so way he actually did this is interesting, looked at kids (common among other theorists talked about) all looked at kids because that is where most fascinating growth occurs is during adolescent period, told a bunch of children many dilemma situations, told this to kids of all ages asked many questions to figure out how they reasoned through these issues most famous situation is Mr. Heinz some story in Europe

Question 66

Kohlberg Mr. Heinz story

Answer 66

Mr. Heinz called Heinz dilemma, couldn’t afford medicine for wife so broke in and stole the drug asked kids tons of questions about this, after compiling and analzying all responses he analyzed 3 distinct levels of moral reasoning 1. pre-conventional or pre-moral phase 2. conventional stage 3. post-conventional stage think of this as ladder of morality!can only pass through levels in order listed, each new stage replaces reasoning typical of earlier stage, also said not everyone achieves the last stage each level further split into 2 levels so all together 6 stages of morality development***

Question 67

1. pre-moral (Kohlberg)

Answer 67

1. obedience versus punishment kids see rules as fixed or absolute obeying rules is a means to avoid punishment, if child is good, they will avoid being punished by their parent, if they are punished they must have done something wrong! 2. individualism and exchange= children recognize not just one right view handed down by authorities, start to understand different individuals have different view points once pass through these stages can move up ladder into conventional stage, at conventional stage there are two more steps!

Question 68

2. conventional stage (Kohlberg)

Answer 68

3. good boy / good girl authority is internalize but not question, reasoning based on norms of group the person belongs to, all about good boy and good girl* what this means is kid or individuals good in order to be seen as good by other people, nw talking about other people’s thoughts or accounts, being nice and having that consideration of how choices influence relationships 4. Law and order= child becomes aware of the wider rules of society* so judgments concern, obeying rules to uphold the law and uphold guilt

Question 69

3. post-conventional stage Kohlberg

Answer 69

stage 5. social contract in this phase individual judgment based on self chosen principles, beyond law and order think higher level, justice for greater good- individual aware rules and laws exist for good of greater number of people, times this law and order may work against particular work of people, in Heinz dilemma was protection of life worth breaking law to steal, according to this yes protection of life is more important than breaking law and stealing at level 4, important for maintaining society but members that reach this level realize society needs to agree upon these standards and sometimes law needs to be broken to obtain these morals values

Question 70

3. post-conventional stage part 2 Kohlberg

Answer 70

stage 6. universal ethical principle ppl have own set of moral guidelines at this stage, may or may not fit law principles apply to everyone, human rights, justice and equality, person who upholds and believes in this in equality has to uphold and believe in these principles even if it goes against rest of society and go through consequences prison, etc , universal rights of equality for all ppl even if goes against law of society at one time, still upheld this and prepared to pay consequences law would put against them the restraints so they are the ones that have the highest level of morality* Kohlberg believed very very few ppl reached this stage- think Gandhi one person who reached this stage, put into prison many times, Nelson Mandela, MLK

Question 71

imitation andrew melzoff study

Answer 71

1. begins with understanding difference btw ourselves our own bodies and others doesn’t occur until a few months, few years into childhood, while other theorists say it happens once we are born* 2. Andrew Melzoff 1977 published study questioning understanding btw self and others happens few months after birth 3. He found babies imitating experimenter sticking out their tongue versus opening mouth for some other reason, not a reflex or just because of our present, its when we stuck out our tongue when baby had passifer in mouth experimenter stuck out tongue baby still imitated them 4. last condition in experiment, experimenters facial expression had to be blank b/c subtle differences had to be controlled just incase to assure true imitation was actually occurring* so social creatures btw 12-21 days baby has concept of themselves own bodies in relation to others and can copy other ppl, suggests we are born with built in capacity to imitate others** so much of what we learn early on is from eachother** suggests built in mechanism important for our species*

Question 72

mirror neurons

Answer 72

fasciated scientists what they do is when one fires when we act another is fired when we observe the same action performed by another person, essentially motor neurons mirroring other found in somatosensory cortex or motor cortex, helpful in understanding imitation further*

Question 73

social norms

Answer 73

accepted standards of behaviors of social groups, norms defining appropriate behavior for every social group* as one moves from the next to the next norms change*

Question 74

reference groups

Answer 74

any group to which we can go to, or a person refers to through the groups beliefs or their attitudes* or their behaviors* we are constantly looking for these external groups aligned with our own beliefs or attitudes and behaviors*, like social science student reference group during election, or feminist reference group deciding to change name after married any person or group serves as point of comparison for individual in formation of general or specific values influences our specific decisions, like going to go get a car going to bring reference group with you, subconsciously have attitudes and beliefs formed, where seek to satisfy expectations of others to get some approval or reference group some level of aspiration*

Question 75

George Mead

Answer 75

only certain ppl can influence our perception of life, changes across the lifespan of others who would influence us believed young kids see themselves as focus of own world, don’t care what other people see about them and lack ability to take perspective of another person* very similar to Piaget’s concept of ego centrism balance of both the I and the me also as we grow up beliefs about how other people perceive us become more important 1. preparation stage= imitation 2. play stage= pretend play 3. game stage = generalized other, multiple roles, significant others

Question 76

charles cooley looking glass self 1

Answer 76

view of ourselves not only from direct contemplation of our qualities but also of our perceptions of how we are being perceived by others 3 steps= 1. imagine how appear to others (family or friends) 2. how they must evaluate us based on their observations of us, do we come across as shy or awk 3. develop theories about ourselves based on our impressions of their evaluations and observations we are not actually being influenced by opinions of others** but influenced by what we imagine other’s opinion to be, so can develop our self theory baed on correct and incorrect feelings of how ppl feel about us!

Question 77

Cooley vs Mead

Answer 77

Cooley and mead are sociologists (other ppl can play a role in how we view ourselves) everyone a person interacts with during our lifespan can influence our identity income way or another*** mead thinks more restrictive only certain ppl can influence our perception of life and only during particular periods and changes across life span -mead believed other young children not actually influenced by others in another way, focus of own world don’t care what other ppl think of them, lack ability to even take perspective of another person** familiar with developmental psychology very similar to piaget’s egocentrism as grow up beliefs from others are more important!

Question 78

self serving bias

Answer 78

way of protecting and enhancing our own self esteem, much more common in individualistic cultures, like Europe and North America -if succeed down to our own internal/ personal qualities, if we fail there is no hit on our self esteem because more likely to do with things outside of our control, so individualistic societies tend to demonstrate a greater degree of this self serving bias, mechanism to protect own self esteem particular important in individualistic societies because of emphasis on individual success

Question 79

stereotype threat

Answer 79

negative stereotype–> reduced task performance ! when exposure to negative stereotype surrounding a task can cause a decrease in performance of an individual when attempting that task, so here the stereotype actually threatens performance*

Question 80

cognition– affective – behavioral

Answer 80

cognition actually stereotyping, if don’t like a group of ppl will not spend a lot of time with them, probably avoid them if say city dwellers are rude, attach an affective component to this I dont’ like them, now this moves from stereotyping to prejudice then start to avoid them from affective, now I will avoid them, when avoid them demonstrating a behavioral component then actually moving from prejudice to discrimination*** so as can se here difference btw stereotyping prejudice and one of cognition, affect and behavior!

Question 81

self- fulfilling prophecy

Answer 81

I will avoid city dwellers, they think I am rude, they may not like me they avoid me, now they have cognition, affective not like me and avoid me behavioral to say initial thought/cognition that city dwellers were rude becomes more true every time by own actions, our initial stereotype city dwellers were rude becomes more true as perceive them to be ruder and ruder over time, positive feedback and self fulfilling prophecy

Question 82

Prejudice

Answer 82

1.cognition (stereotype) 2.affective 3. tendency to lead to behavior (once act on behavior turns into discrimination) when prejudice leads to behavioral change!

Question 83

authoritarian personality

Answer 83

ppl with this personality are pretty militaristic in some ways, listen to their superiors, obedient to their superiors but on the other hand do not have much sympathy or caring for ppl they deem inferior to themselves, can be pretty oppressive to those beneath them* rigid and inflexible with their view points, one thing we think about authoritarian personality perhaps had quite harsh upbringings, probably underwent a lot of disciplining themselves -ppl with this authoritarian personality use prejudice to help them cope with their world view, its actually protective of their ego, prejudice avoids them to have to confront unacceptable aspects of themselves, always focusing on other people how other ppl behave and act don’t like other ppl, quite controversial and not everyone agrees with this jack boot personality type* personality type very hard to change, to reduce prejudice by authoritarian personalities quite difficult

Question 84

authoritarian personality 2

Answer 84

obedient to superiors oppressive rigid and inflexible harsh, disciplined upbringing

Question 85

frustration aggression hypothesis

Answer 85

frustration turns into aggressive impulses ex. work low pay job get angry and aggressive, start to get aggressive towards your employer for giving you such a crummy low pay job one challenge get really aggressive to employer may lose job, may not want that, if don’t become aggressive to employer bottles up aggression keeps mounting up, so some ppl take aggression and re-channel it somewhere else, so instead of employer re-channel toward minorities much more acceptable because when do that wont lose job can display out aggression to other ppl, minoroities and other racial groups, doing something called scapegoating, doing something taking frustration turning aggression, instead of employer or other figure channel it to other figures seen this in particular times of economic hardship or disadvantages

Question 86

hypothesis of relative deprivation

Answer 86

suggests ppl become v frustrated and get upsurge of prejudice and discrimination when ppl feel deprived of something they feel entitled to, discrepency of what their expectations are and what they get if our expectation is living standards inc gradually over time, this is what we expect, what we actually get is that living standards don’t inc over time actually tend to drop off because of economic problems left with a difference, this difference is the relative deprivation, extent and how quickly that relative deprivation comes about can lead to collective unrest and upsurge in prejudice and also discrimination** behavioral component that can occur after prejudice so linked to frustration aggression hypothesis

Question 87

just world phenomenon

Answer 87

assumption world is just and therefore ppl often get what they deserve, meaning good things happen to good ppl and bad things happen to bad ppl ppl in high social class say ppl bore are lazy, if worked harder may be successful too, results in prejudice and discrimination, can vote against welfare programs that aid the poor

Question 88

ex prejudice, stereotypes, discrimination

Answer 88

stereotypes- mentally ill are violent (cognition prejudices- they scare me! (affect or emotion) discrimination- I wont hire them! behavior

Question 89

first impression

Answer 89

primacy bias

Question 90

recency bias

Answer 90

you’re only as good as your last game! recent impression or data is also very important

Question 91

halo effect

Answer 91

kid in class who can do no wrong, teacher thought kid good all the time whether they actually were good depends if overall perception is some is outstanding may think other traits or skills they have is outstanding whether we have the evidence to suggest that or not attractiveness also if someone is very attractive may think someone is very kind or good leaders or hospitible even if no evidence to support that***

Question 92

the devil effect

Answer 92

also referred to as reverse halo efect, when if we have a very negative overall impression or one attribute very negative about a person can carry over into other ways we see other attributes of a person, other ways our perception of individual can be changed, here reduction in perceived skills, kid in class that can do no wrong teacher sees halo kid who only could do wrong maybe reverse halo effect or devil effect occurring with teacher viewing their actions

Question 93

just world hypothesis 2

Answer 93

noble actions are rewarded evil actions always punished “cosmic justice” at play can think this way because helps individuals to really rationalize good fortune or misfortune, helps in own mind to explain why other ppl may be doing well or badly, also helps individuals feel can influence the world in a very predictable manner, much easier to plan for future and engage in goal driven behavior, if put effort and hours in, if i go to school and do the right thing I will get rewarded in life*

Question 94

just world hypothesis 3

Answer 94

not always true, blaming ppl who are in poverty poor for ppl who are victims so one thing know about just world hypothesis challenged on daily basis, world simply isn’t fair, and what we know is that when we see world isn’t fair and we see good deeds being punished or evil deeds being reward we need to make sense of that so can do that in many different ways to explain behavior of other ppl- attribution theory split up to internal causes and external causes, just world hypothesis seems to over attribute ppls’ actions to personal or dispositional factors and under recognizes complex situational factors that may be at play here*** for example, if we see someone v poor may think these are personal failings for not taking responsibility for their own actions rather than recognizing complex social and environmental pressures placed upon them*

Question 95

when just world hypothesis is threatened

Answer 95

rational techniques 1. accept reality 2. prevent or correct injustice (petition, legal system) Irrational techniques 1. denial (refusing to accept that we have seen a situation or situation exists) 2. reinterpret events, if seen somebody who is a victim of violence, instead of saying hurt nice person challenges just world, reinterpret outcome more trip or fall not really assaulted could have happened to anyone, reinterpret cause walking in really tough neighborhood, reinterpret character of victim, always thought really good human being now probably isn’t, morally not sure what kind of person she is, that is why these events happen

Question 96

ethnocentric

Answer 96

judging own culture to be superior to others*

Question 97

cultural relativism

Answer 97

=no right absolute or wrong, but we have different cultures who are themselves valid** and equal, can falter if someone uses it to conduct activities that really violate rights and dignity of fellow human beings no matter what culture they are in or from* something important for us to consider* opposite of ethnocentric as start to look at culture events, whether food or cultural phenomenum from perspective of other person’s culture we start to move into concept of cultural relativism*

Question 98

in group

Answer 98

Us in group favoritism share what we have, very friendly toward ppl in our in group

Question 99

group polarization

Answer 99

decision making machine that is the group makes decisions that are more extreme* then any individual members would be inclined to make, so groups opinions, actions and decision making should become more extreme than what individual members wanted, can effectively turbo charge any other processes going on, and also turbo charge groups viewpoints for ex if think insects pests do they set up fumagation society in neighborhood

Question 100

out group derogation

Answer 100

out group = them super friendly and nice to our in group, but when it comes to the out group we are not so friendly we are actually mean and may actually discriminate -do this if feel out group is trying to undermine or stop our in group from achieving success

Question 101

A person cuts in line at the movie theater. We observe this action, and believe that the person cut in line because he or she is rude, disrespectful, and selfish. This is an example of:

Answer 101

People use their common sense to understand behavior. Observers decide whether to attribute a behavior to the internal state (disposition/character) of the person who performed it or the external state (situation/context). The person who cut in line was observed as rude, disrespectful, and selfish–all internal dispositions. Therefore it is an internal attribution.

Question 102

John’s car breaks down in the middle of the highway. He believes that the breakdown of his car can be explained by the fact that his car is old. This is an example of:

Answer 102

People use common sense to understand behavior. If John believed that the car broke down because of his lack of understanding of cars, then it is an internal attribution. However, John believes that the breakdown of the car is explained by an external factor–his car is old. Therefore, this is an example of external attribution.

Question 103

At work, you witness an employee getting yelled at by the boss. In your mind you come up with at least three potential causes for the yelling: the boss’ (actor) bad temper, the laziness of the employee (object), and the especially hot and humid day (context or setting). This judgment process is referred to as:

Answer 103

= covariation model This is a type of attribution theory. This is a model for judging whether a particular action should be attributed to some internal characteristic of the person or the external environment. Perceivers use multiple observations to arrive at a conclusion about the cause(s) of a behavior. In the covariation model, you (the perceiver) use multiple observations (actor, object, context) to determine the cause of the yelling behavior.

Question 104

An NBA basketball coach expects his rookie players to be unprepared for professional ball, so he does not play them often. When he does they are rusty and do not perform well. This is an example of:

Answer 104

self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 105

Which of the following demonstrates a self-fulfilling prophecy?

Answer 105

a baseball coach believes John is better than his teammate Tim. John is praised more, and more time is spent with John during practice. At the end of the season, other teammates noticed that John has become a better player than Tim. In a self-fulfilling prophecy, the perceiver has expectations about how target will behave. In a self-fulfilling prophecy, the perceiver then behaves in a way that is likely to elicit the expected target behavior. In a self-fulfilling prophecy, the target indeed behaves in a way that confirms perceiver’s expectations. In a self-fulfilling prophecy, the perceiver sees predicted behavior in the outcome. The baseball coach has expectations about how target John will behave. Actual results are observed (John became a better player).

Question 106

“The labels we learn affect the ways we perceive people”. Such a statement is stressed by the following sociological approach:

Answer 106

=Symbolic interactionism b/c This approach examines how labels affect perception and create prejudice. This approach argues that labels create selective perception, and they lead us to see certain things while they blind us to others. Symbolic interactionists stress that the labels we learn affect the ways we perceive people.

Question 107

learned helplessness

Answer 107

uncontrollable bad event–> perceived lack of control–> generalized helpless behavior ex. nursing home, poverty, homeless etc causes depression* having a little bit of control over our lives is preferable to no control**

Question 108

tyranny of choice

Answer 108

having too many choices can negatively impact or behavior -information overload, feels overwhelming so feel decision paralysis inability to make decision, leads to inc regret over choices they have made, not as confident made right decision* so control v important, a little bit of control over environment great but too much control and too many choices can have negative impact on our wellbeing* ex. ppl choice out of 6 brands of chocolate vs 30, ones out of 6 options were way more satisfied, 30 options not as satisfied way less confident with choice

Question 109

mere exposure effect

Answer 109

repeated exposure to novel number of ppl, stimuli or things inc our liking of them applies to everything! more se something more likely to like to and rate it better /more favorably than novel things we have not been exposed too

Question 110

Harlow monkey experiments 1

Answer 110

wire mother (chicken wire and feeding tube) or blanket mother, same size and shape of wire mother, but instead of exposed chicken wire soft blanket around it, mother that can provide comfort if food basis of attachment predict kid goes to wire mother because provides food, but if assume based on comfort assume goes to blanket, baby monkeys overwhelmingly go to cloth mother so its comfort not nurishment that forms basis of attachment*** didn’t just go to cloth mother spent a large majority of time spent it clinging to her, when had to eat kept part of body wrapped around cloth mother while keeping contact with cloth mother, didn’t want to lose contact or give up that comfort, overtime did become more comfortable with situation to explore cage but always returned to cloth mother, secure base

Question 111

Harlow monkey experiment secure base

Answer 111

secure base= secure in knowledge cloth mother not going anywhere, can leave to explore but if got anxious can go straight back, this secure attachment allows cloth mother to act as secure base and makes baby comfortable enough to explore world on its own

Question 112

Ainsworth strange situation

Answer 112

mother and kid enter new place, psych lab 1. first part of experiment mother lets kid play around in room while she sits, both sit in room with child but don’t interact 2. mother tries to leave room without brining attention to itself, baby left alone with stranger psychiatrist, doesn’t say goodbye 3. mother returns to room, end experiment just as started with mother, stranger and kid in room

Question 113

Ainsworth strange situation 2 what they are looking for=

Answer 113

1. exploration= wanted to see whether or not child explores space when mother present, get up and walk and play with toys or cling to mother 2. how does kid respond when mother leaves? keep on playing or cry? 3. how does kid react when mother returns to room, happy , sad or ignore her all together? can split kids into two main groups= secure attachment and insecure attachment

Question 114

secure attachment

Answer 114

-kid comfortable to explore room, maybe stayed next to mother for first bit but then felt comfortable enough to explore, sometimes looked at mom or came back to her but in general comfortable to do it on their own -when she left very upset when noticed absence, but distress goes away when mother returns, kids usually went to her and wanted contact with her KEY DISTRESS GOES AWAY WHEN MOM RETURNS

Question 115

insecure attachment

Answer 115

-kids first brought in just like securely attached kids clinged to mother, but they tended to stay with mother and NOT explore room -when mother left kids got really upset like securely attached kids but unlike securely attached children that distress does not end when she returns, they were upset when she went away but not soothed by presence

Question 116

insecure avoidant attachment

Answer 116

other attached kids also showed avoidant behaviors not upset when mother left and indifferent when she returned*

Question 117

parenting style has to do with secure /insecure attachment

Answer 117

-mother sensitive and responsive to infants kids secure attachment -mothers unresponsive to kids insensitive to kids, kids formed insecure attachments not child abuse or neglect, would attend to kids but tended to ignore them at other times* can see for yourself when observe parent and kid interactions, how often is parent looking at phone when kid trying to get parent’s attention, do they continue to look at it as kid gets attention.

Question 118

how secure/insecure attachment impacts you later in life

Answer 118

insecure anxious about relationships as adults, or avoid being too attached to one person secure attachment are secure in relationships attachment style as infants seems to impact relationship have with own kids secure attachment with parents tend to have secure attachment with their kids, and same with insecure

Question 119

aggression 1

Answer 119

physical or verbal all counts as aggression comes from combination of biology, psychology and social-cultural (react more aggressive in groups then by themselves*)

Question 120

aggression 2 biology

Answer 120

genetic component, one identical twin has a violent temper other one is likely to have one as well, same is not true for fraternal twins** has to be genetic impact because breeds of animals can be bred to be aggression -not one area in brain but circuits or areas that code for it** -studies violent criminals found dec frontal lobe activation, correlational but implies those who commit violent actions have trouble inhibiting aggressive behaviors ppl have trouble keeping inside* -testosterone plays large role in aggressive behaviors, wider face..

Question 121

parents who award temper tantrums

Answer 121

reinforcement- modeling, makes more temper tantrums in the future, liekly to be aggressive again, rewarding the kid encourages more temper tantrums in future if parents scream and yell, if parents fight and yell or hit each other kids will demonstrate those behaviors as well; so even if parent never yells at child kid still pays attention to what parent does and picks up behavior by observing them

Question 122

de indviduation

Answer 122

gain anonymous status around huge group of ppl, if other ppl act poorly you will act poorly like poor behavior on internet, some things ppl say online never dream of saying to another person face to face, those around them modeling poor behavior they tend to display poor behavior as well!

Question 123

social scripts

Answer 123

ppl in new situation don’t know how to behave, tend to rely on social scripts / instructions provided by society how to act, if play a lot of violent video games it models violent aggressive behavior toward them ,ppl responding in aggressive way so if placed in new situation may rely on social script to know how to act, doesn’t say violent media causes aggression

Question 124

ascribed status

Answer 124

given to you at birth don’t change during lifetime, don’t have a choice about it like royal family born into immediately given ascribed status of prince princess, v different than achieved status

Question 125

achieved status

Answer 125

your decision and your choice, earned through own effort! ex. making olympic team KEY WORD IS IT IS EARNED**

Question 126

role strain versus role conflict

Answer 126

tension btw roles of one single status like a student is role strain role conflict is conflict btw roles of two or more statuses like husband and worker

Question 127

primary groups

Answer 127

primary groups close, intimate, long term relationships, very close friends like bridal party, college friends, teammates in college sports, immediate family, brothers and sisters

Question 128

secondary groups

Answer 128

key thing is short term* NOT CLOSE, often goal oriented relationships distant family, acquiatances, more formal and goal oriented, like ppl who can help you in future, keep strong relationships, distant family members to keep everyone happy and avoid family drama

Question 129

dramaturgy

Answer 129

Erving Goffman studied ppl and nature of interactions, avoiding ppl in social setting noticed ppl plan conduct want to guide and control how they are seen, want to put forward best presentation they can, explains how we behave as humans in social setting! 2 parts 1. front stage- social setting around a lot of ppl, like a guy who is on the stage and with a bunch of guys trying to make some friends new to a place, invited to baseball game maybe hates baseball but goes because wants to manipulate how seen and gain some clout with fiends, putting on front to audience so ppl think he is cool and likes sports 2. backstage- much more private area of our lives, when the act is over, come off stage in front of social setting, do whatever comes to mind whatever makes you comfortable, maybe only a few ppl know about this. guy from first ex done with baseball game hanging out and being a real guy comes over here and loves hanging out with cat and watching cooking shows doesn’t really like sports but no one has to know that about him! much more private area of life, can kick back and relax many ppl dont know about now these two are sort of related, now ppl putting on act in private lives and crossing over to front stage Due to social media, I have cool friends but really now ppl often putting on front and going back on their stage so ppl related that way

Question 130

dramaturgical approach 2

Answer 130

-front stage performance put on in social setting -backstage can be yourself and the act is over -tool we use to look appealing is “impression management” =our attempt to control how others see us, this makes sense because we want to be viewed in positive way from those around us, many social situations require different scripts as an actor have to play a different role every time, ex of guy who pretends to like baseball front stage, maybe earlier in life captain of football team so required to get everyone fired up for a game get troops ready and lead team to victory during the weak, but then during weekends volunteers at a hospital and works in patient transport wheeling around and important job to be there for parents comfort them and be there for their situation, offer them any care he can, different than first situation, then next situation goes to school to visit a professor chemistry professor very well connected has his eye on particular school he needs to get into and chem professor can offer him that letter of recommendation so pretends to be interested in her research and goes and does research with her, maybe doesn’t care at all, but wants to give that impression to teacher, his plan the whole time is to get that letter of recommendation, after that really really excited asked out girl had crush on for a long time… etc

Question 131

dramaturgical approach 3

Answer 131

takeaway here is multiple front stages require a different script, one backstage v private area of his life only a few ppl know about very close to him, so this is where you work on impression management where it is all tied together* so try on a lot of different outfits before going to hang with friends want to look ok that is all done in backstage, can think of backstage as training area for front stage impression management* how impression management relates to front stage and back stage

Question 132

institutional discrimination

Answer 132

organization discriminating not an individual like professor, government, banks, schools etc ex. brown vs board of education, landmark court case 1954 overturned fact used to be separate but equal schools; brown says even though saying separate but equal not true much more inferior worse education, and being mistreated that is institutional discrimination

Question 133

individual discrimination

Answer 133

professor of chem doesn’t like girls so will not let women in his class no matter what, just how he is no women allowed to learn chem, because individual person acting against certain group of ppl based on sex, could have been anything, race religion, etc individual because one person taking action!

Question 134

discrimination

Answer 134

KEY WORD IS ACTION/BEHAVIOR*** =differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities because of race, age, religion etc can occur at individual or institutional level

Question 135

side effect discrimination

Answer 135

unintentional, like minority plead guilty to charge didn’t commit, now apply to job criminal record comes up, employer has nothing uses information about applicants criminal record, don’t intent to discriminate by any means but end up doing so whether individual was guilty or not, but thinks guilt, so unjust verdict potential employer swayed in an unfair way one institutional effecting the other

Question 136

past and present discrimination

Answer 136

another kind of unintentional discrimination even though no longer be allowed can have consequences for things in present, like brown vs board of education, she still feels mistreated and it is not going well for her, negative idea from past coming to present and causes minority to feel discriminated against unfairly

Question 137

prejudice 2

Answer 137

attitudes that prejudge a group usually negative and not based on facts, it is how they feel, negative attitude not based on any facts ex sexist ceo, doesnt think women capable of running team

Question 138

discrimination 2

Answer 138

ACTION IS BEING TAKEN BIG DIFFERENCE differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities, with sexist ceo no job promotion for women; acting on the negative attitude ex jews having to wear stars, not just prejudice required to so it, action taken against them, or apartheid system of extreme racial segregation 1948 to 1994, this is action taken against minorities*

Question 139

6 universal emotions

Answer 139

Happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger, disgust Charles Darwin- emotions have adaptive value, newborn baby surprise or frightened act like adults act never taught how to do these things, bodies just react this way, blind ppl similar facial expressions even though obviously never seen it before* so universal emotions exist

Question 140

dissociative mating

Answer 140

opposite of assortative mating, individuals with different traits . or more diverse more likely to mate, do so at higher rate the strategy that is better is assortative mating despite inbreeding and strengthening traits, it inc inclusive fitness

Question 141

inclusive fitness

Answer 141

wants to be able to reproduce and pass on his or her genes close relatives of an individual have similar genes, evolutionarily advantageous, predicts we will behave helpfully and alturistically towards those with individuals similar to our own we are more likely to behave altruistically to those who share same last name as them!

Question 142

evolutionary game theory

Answer 142

alturism actually inc success of overall group, inc fitness or group around it, making monkey who survives attack more likely to reproduce think abotu monkey who sounds alarm for predator close by, he may die but everyone else lives!

Question 143

social stratification

Answer 143

This inequality in the system is what we call social stratification. In this unequal social system, there is often unfair treatment directed against certain individuals or social groups. This is referred to as discrimination. Discrimination can be based on many different characteristics—age, gender, weight, ethnicity, religion, or even politics.

Question 144

stereotyping

Answer 144

attributing certain sort, certain cognition to group of individuals, over generalizing! can also involve, race, gender, culture, religion! pretty inaccurate so major disadvantage, also advantage because it actually allows us to rapidly assess large amounts of social information/data! so in that case it is a good tool

Question 145

represenativeness heuristic

Answer 145

The representativeness heuristic is the tendency to make decisions about actions or events based upon our standard representations of those events. The closely related availability heuristic is the tendency to make decisions about how likely an action or event is based upon how readily available similar information is in our memories.

Question 146

belief bias

Answer 146

Belief bias is the tendency that people have to judge things based not upon sound logic, but upon already held beliefs.

Question 147

confirmation bias

Answer 147

Confirmation bias is a tendency that people have to focus on information that is in agreement with the beliefs they already have, rather than the information that is contrary to those beliefs.

Question 148

fundamental attribution error

Answer 148

The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to place less importance on the import of a situation or context on behavior, and instead place undue emphasis on dispositional or internal qualities in order to explain behavior. In other words, we have a tendency to think that people are how they act.

Question 149

actor-observer bias

Answer 149

Moreover, we often blame our own actions on external situations but the actions of others on personality. This is called the actor-observer bias.

Question 150

self-serving bias

Answer 150

Similarly, self-serving bias is the tendency people have to credit their successes to themselves and their failures either to the actions of others or to situations. Biases can also relate to perceptions of group belonging, as in the in-group bias where people are biased towards those viewed as being part of their in-group.

Question 151

social desirability bias

Answer 151

Biases can also play a role in responses to questionnaires; for instance, social desirability bias refers to the tendency that people have to give socially approved responses to questions in the context of research.

Question 152

This study illustrates that those who assume abuses in institutions are done by those with dispositional propensities to violence have committed an error of what type?

Answer 152

Fundamental attribution

This experiment showed that anyone can act in the way the participants did in the right conditions, not because of certain personality characteristics. To assume otherwise is to commit the fundamental attribution error.

Question 153

foot in the door technique

Answer 153

The “foot-in-the-door” technique involves getting a person to agree to a small request, like asking them to purchase a small item, followed by making a much larger request.

Question 154

door in the face technique

Answer 154

The opposite approach is often called the “door-in-the-face” technique, wherein the initial request is unreasonably large and is therefore rejected. The initial large request is then followed by a smaller, more reasonable-sounding request that is much more likely to be accepted. Persuasive techniques may include the use of rewards or punishments (social or material), positive or negative expertise, and many others.

Question 155

Self Concept

Answer 155

An individual’s self-concept is their answer to the question, “Who am I?”

Self-concept is actually a combination of multiple self-representations, or self-schemas, that evolve over time:

1. Present self-schemas: “Who am I currently in the contexts of school, family life, work, friends, politics, etc.?”
2. Past self-schema: “Who was I five years ago?”
3. Possible future self-schemas: “Who will I become in 10 years?”

Note: A schema is a representation of a realm of cognitive concepts (e.g., plans, theories) in the form of a cluster of knowledge or facts.

The self-concept is purely descriptive (e.g., “I am a person who gets good grades in school”) and does not include value judgments (e.g., “I am proud to be a good student”; see self-esteem below).

Question 156

Identity

Answer 156

Identity is a representation of who a person is as an individual and as a member of various social groups.

Identity can evolve but is perceived to be contiguous over time, i.e., “Twenty-year-old me and 30-year-old me are not exactly the same person, but they are both ‘me’—they have the same identity.”

Question 157

types of identity

Answer 157

Personal identity

Social identity

Cultural identity

Question 158

Personal identity 2

Answer 158

Personal identity: what defines me as an individual and makes me unique from other individuals.

Question 159

Social identity 2

Answer 159

Social identity: the part of my identity that is based on my membership in various social groups (e.g., clubs, professional organizations, religious groups).

Question 160

Cultural identity

Answer 160

Cultural identity: the part of my identity that is based on my belonging to a particular culture, defined by cultural signifiers including factors like race/ethnicity, language, interests and attitudes, nationality, religious beliefs, etc.

Question 161

Forced compliance

Answer 161

Forced compliance refers to how an authority figure can cause an individual to act against their best interests.

Persuasion backed by authority may be used to encourage compliance.

Example: A military leader may insist that soldiers under his command lie about a fatal accident caused by negligence. Soldiers may feel compelled to comply both because of the possibility that not doing so will affect their chances of promotion (and they may be persuaded in this notion by the leader) but also because of the command position of the military leader.

Question 162

self- efficacy 2

Answer 162

Self-efficacy: similar to self-esteem but refers specifically to beliefs about one’s ability to achieve goals.

People with high self-efficacy tend to be more motivated to set challenging goals for themselves and work hard to achieve them.

Self-efficacy also affects healthy lifestyle choices: people with high self-efficacy are more likely to make healthier but more effortful lifestyle choices (e.g., dieting, exercise) and to set and achieve related goals (e.g., quitting smoking).

Question 163

Locus of Control 2

Answer 163

Locus of control refers to whether a person believes that they have the power to shape their life and to control the outcome of events that affect them.

Internal locus of control: “I am in control of the important events in my life.”

External locus of control: “The important events in my life are controlled by factors that I am powerless to influence.”

Question 164

Self-efficacy and locus of control are closely related:

(locus of control 2)

Answer 164

When a person possesses a strong internal locus of control, their self-esteem and self-efficacy are bolstered when they successfully accomplish a goal, because they feel responsible for the positive outcome.

When a person possesses an external locus of control, their self-esteem and self-efficacy will be less affected by success in life because they will tend to attribute that success to an external factor.

• Example: “I did not achieve my goal of graduating from college, but that’s only because my professors didn’t like me.”

Question 165

Erikson theory cnt.

Answer 165

Erkison stages of psychosocial development:

In this model, Joan and Erik Erikson conceptualized identity development in terms of an individual passing through a series of eight stages, each of which is defined in terms of a central conflict that must be reconciled

Question 166

Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development

Answer 166

Lev Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes the importance of teachers and caregivers in guiding a child’s development and enabling the child to learn things that the child could not learn independently at a given age/stage of development.

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to the range of things that a child could learn at a given age.

At the lower end of the range/ZPD are things the child could learn independently, without guidance.

At the upper end of the range/ZPD are things that the child is capable of learning, but only with guidance from a teacher = potential skills (see BH1: Chapter 4: Cognition 1: Cultural and Hereditary Influences).

Question 167

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development (2)

Answer 167

Prior to Kohlberg, developmental psychologists focused mostly on children’s cognitive development. Lawrence Kohlberg extended these earlier findings by focusing on the child’s developing the capacity for moral reasoning.

He identified six stages of moral development:

Pre-conventional: early childhood

Conventional: adolescence and early adulthood

Post-conventional: adulthood

Question 168

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development

first 2 stages

Answer 168

Pre-conventional: early childhood

A. The obedience/punishment stage: Good and bad actions are understood solely in terms of their effect on child.

B. The individualism/self-interest stage: When deciding whether an action is good or bad, the child begins to consider others but only in terms of how others’ interests might affect their own.

Question 169

Kohlberg’s moral development

Stages 3 and 4

Answer 169

Conventional: adolescence and early adulthood

C. The social role/interpersonal accord stage: The child begins to try to live up to others’ expectations but only because doing so has benefits (“I will not lie because otherwise people won’t trust me.”).

D. The law and social order stage: The adolescent learns to obey laws and social conventions because they recognize that laws and conventions are important (“I will not steal because society couldn’t function without respect for property rights.”).

Question 170

Kohlberg’s stage 5 and 6

Answer 170

Post-conventional: adulthood

E. The social contract stage: adults recognize that there is inherent value in respecting others’ opinions and rights; laws are conceived of as fluid social contracts rather than as fixed, rigid, and immutable rules.

F. The justice and universal ethical principles stage: adults eventually understand that laws exist to ensure justice and fairness, and one should not necessarily obey or strive to enforce laws that are unjust and unfair; civil disobedience can be good.

Question 171

Freud personality development

the id

Answer 171

The Freudian theory of personality development: Freud believed biological and sociological factors interacted to shape personality. Freud identified three aspects of the mind (or the self) that must work together to ensure proper social interactions and behavior on the part of an individual. “(See BH1: Chapter 6: Behavior I: Personality)

A. The “id”: instincts

• The “id” is a driver of biological/physiological needs and physical desires.
• The id develops first, with infancy.
• The id operates according to the “pleasure principle”: the idea that needs should be immediately met.
• Freud described the id as “the dark, inaccessible part of our personality.”
• A purely id-driven individual would act in any way, socially acceptable or not, to achieve satisfaction of desires.

Question 172

The superego: MORALITY

Answer 172

The “superego” serves as a conscience, tempering raw carnal desires.

The superego develops as a child moves from infancy to early childhood.

The superego drives conformity with social standards.

A purely superego-driven individual would act in a manner overly constrained by societal norms and expectations.

The superego consists of two systems: the conscience (which can drive feelings of guilt) and the ideal self (which is an image of how the individual ought to be).

Self-congruence increases when there is greater correspondence of the actual self with the ideal self. (This is not necessarily an exclusively Freudian idea.)

Freud conceptualized the superego to play the role of censor on repression of inappropriate desires or impulses.

Question 173

the “ego”

Answer 173

REALITY

The “ego” resolves the conflicts between the id and the superego.

The ego operates according to the “reality principle,” dealing with realistic strategies to achieve personal aims.

The ego balances behavior geared at satisfying pure physiological needs with socially acceptable behavioral modes.

Freud defined the ego as “the representative of the outer word to the id.”

When the ego fails, decision making may become difficult.

Question 174

George Mead’s theory

Answer 174

George Mead’s “me” and “I”: Mead’s approach to thinking about the self in a sociological context hinged on conceptualizing the mind as the individual’s cognitive space for bringing in ideas, schemas, and frameworks of thought regarding social processes.

Mead’s ideas influenced symbolic interactionism

Mead posited that community belonging (the playing of various social roles) prefaced the development of individual consciousness informed by other’s perspectives; this notion is in line with many of Durkheim’s ideas.

Mead conceptualized the generalized other as the notions that an individual may have regarding the thoughts, beliefs, and expectations of others in their community.

• The generalized other is the means through which a community effects social control.

• Mead conceptualized two “phases” of the self: one which reflects the perspectives and attitudes of the generalized other and one which engages in responses to those attitudes and perspectives.

Question 175

George Mead’s

the me

Answer 175

The “me” is the social self—the self in the context of a community.

• Mead saw the “me” as the conception of one’s self that arises from internalized interactions with, and attitudes of, other people; the “me” arises from roles or attributes that are ascribed to, or put upon, an individual. “Me” is the self from the perspective of the object.
• For example, the “me” could be analogized to the role of playing center on a basketball team (it is the role listed on the team roster).

Question 176

The I

George Mead’s theory

Answer 176

The “I” is the individual’s response to the “me.”

• Mead looked at the “I” as giving the self a sense of freedom, initiative, and creativity; it is the self ’s way of actively asserting identity in response to the surrounding world and the expectations and attitudes of others. “I” is the self from the perspective of the subject.
• For example, the “I” could represent the myriad ways that an individual might make a defensive play as a basketball center (blocking a shot, altering a pass, covering a shooter).

Question 177

The Me and I

George Mead

Answer 177

The “me” and the “I” co-exist in a dynamic relationship to one another.

The “me” keeps the “I” from behaving out of line with community expectations.

Thus, the “me” acts in the role of Freud’s “censor” concept, and the “I” acts not unlike Freud’s “ego.”

Question 178

the humanistic perspective

Answer 178

This perspective on self, personality, behavior—and on psychology in general— arose as a response to the recognized limitations to Freudian theory and Skinner’s behaviorism.

Carl Rogers and Otto Rank, who separated themselves from Freudian psychoanalysis, were early proponents of the humanistic perspective.

The humanistic perspective emphasizes free will and self-actualization.

This perspective had influence on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.