Social Influence - Conformity

Question 1

What is conformity?

Answer 1

The tendency to change what we do, think, or say in response to the influence of real or imagined pressure from others.

Question 2

Who suggested that there are three ways in which people conform to the opinion of a majority?

Answer 2

Herbert Kelman (1958)

Question 3

What is a private and public attitude?

Answer 3

Your private attitude is what you actually believe and your public attitude is what you tell people you believe.

Question 4

What are the three ways in which people conform?

Answer 4

1. compliance
2. identification
3. internalisation

Question 5

What is compliance?

Answer 5

A form of conformity where people conform in order to avoid social rejection. So they conform publicly but not privately (the effect of the majority is short).

Question 6

What is identification?

Answer 6

A form of conformity where a person conforms to imitate a social role or role model they admire. So they conform publicly and privately (the effect of the influence is longer, but is still only temporary as they may not admire that role model forever and when they don’t, they won’t imitate them anymore, or they’ll leave their social role).

Question 7

What is internalisation?

Answer 7

A form of conformity where people conform publicly and privately because they are persuaded that the attitudes and behaviours of the majority are correct (these effects are long-lasting, so internalisation is a strong form of conformity).

Question 8

What is the two-process theory?

Answer 8

Deutsch and Gerard (1955) developed a two-process theory which proposes that there are two main reasons why people conform. They are based on two central human needs (according to social psychologists): the need to be liked and the need to be right.

Question 9

What is normative social influence?

Answer 9

This occurs when we wish to be liked by the majority group, so we go along with them even though we may not agree with them. This is really just following the crowd in order to fit in with the norm and be liked by the group.

Question 10

What is informational social influence?

Answer 10

This occurs when we look to the majority group for information as we are unsure about the way in which to behave. A person will conform because they genuinely believe the majority to be right as we look to them for the right answer.

Question 11

In what conditions are you more likely to conform by normative social influence? What can it be explained by?

Answer 11

• high social pressure

- can be explained by compliance

Question 12

In what conditions are you more likely to conform by informational social influence? What can it be explained by?

Answer 12

• high task difficulty
• high uncertainty
• can be explained by internalisation or sometimes identification

Question 13

What is a strength of normative social influence?

Answer 13

There is research support.

Asch (1951) asked participants to explain why they agreed with the wrong answer. Some said they felt self-conscious giving the right answer and were afraid of disapproval. When Asch asked participants to write down their answers, conformity rates fell to 12.5%. This supports the participants’ own reports that they were conforming because of normative social influence.

Question 14

What is a weakness of normative social influence?

Answer 14

There are individual differences.

People who care more about being liked are more affected by normative social influence. They are nAffiliators - people who have a greater need for social relationships. McGhee and Teevan (1967) found that students who were nAffiliators were more likely to conform. The desire to be liked underlies conformity for some people more than others. One general theory does not cover the fact there are differences.

It doesn’t explain why people conform in situations where there is low social pressure.

Question 15

What is a strength of informational social influence?

Answer 15

There is research support.

Lucas et al. (2006) asked students to give answers to easy and more difficult maths problems. There was more conformity to incorrect answers when the problems were difficult. This was most true for students who rated their maths ability as poor. People conform in situations where they feel they don’t know the answer. We look to others and assume they know better than us and must be right.

Question 16

What is a weakness of informational social influence?

Answer 16

There are individual differences.

Asch (1955) found that students were less conformist (28%) than other participants (37%). Perrin and Spencer’s (1980) also found less conformity in students - in this study they were engineering students (i.e. confident about precision). People who are knowledgable and/or more confident are less influenced by the apparently “right” view of a majority. Therefore there are differences in how individuals respond to informational social influences.

It doesn’t explain why people conform in situations where task difficulty is low.

Question 17

What is a limitation of both ISI and NSI?

Answer 17

The two-process approach is oversimplified.

This approach states that behaviour is due to either NSI or ISI. However, conformity was reduced when there was a dissenting partner in the Asch experiment. This dissenter may reduce the power of NSI (by providing social support) or reduce the power of ISI (because they are an alternative source of information). Therefore it isn’t always possible to know whether NSI or ISI is at work. This questions the view of ISI and NSI as operating independently in conforming behaviour.

Question 18

Aim

Sherif (1935)

Answer 18

Sherif conducted an experiment with the aim of demonstrating that people conform to group norms when they are put in an ambiguous situation.

Question 19

Procedure

Sherif (1935)

Answer 19

Sherif used a lab experiment to study conformity. He used the auto-kinetic effect - this is where a small spot of light (projected onto a screen) in a dark room will appear to move, even though it is still.

It was discovered that when participants were individually tested, their estimates on how far the light moved varied considerable (e.g. from 20cm to 80cm). The participants were then tested in groups of three. Sherif manipulated the composition of the group by putting together two people whose estimate of the light movement when alone was very similar, and one person whose estimate was very different. Each person in the group had to say aloud how far they thought the light had moved.

Question 20

Results

Sherif (1935)

Answer 20

Sherif found that over numerous estimates (trials) of the movement of light, the group converged to a common estimate. The person whose estimate of movement was greatly different to the other two in the group conformed to the view of the other two.

Sherif said that this showed that people would always tend to conform. Rather than make individual judgements, they tend to come to a group agreement.

Question 21

Conclusion

Sherif (1935)

Answer 21

The results show that when in an ambiguous situation (such as the auto-kinetic effect), a person will look to others (who know more/better) for guidance (i.e. adopt the group norm). They want to do the right thing but may lack the appropriate information. Observing others can provide this information.

Question 22

What did Asch believe to be the main problem with Sherif’s conformity experiment?

Answer 22

There was no correct answer to the ambiguous autokinetic experiment. How could we be sure that a person conformed when there was no actual correct answer?

Question 23

Procedure

Asch (1951) Conformity Research

Answer 23

Solomon Asch used a lab experiment and recruited 123 American male students. Each was tested individually with a group of between six and eight confederates.

On each trial, participants identified the lengths of a standard line.

On the first few trials, confederates gave correct answers but then all selected the same wrong answers. Each participant completed 18 trials. On 12 “critical trials”, confederates gave the wrong answer.

Question 24

Results and Conclusions

Asch (1951) Conformity Research

Answer 24

The naive participants gave a wrong answer 36.8% of the time (i.e. the proportion of critical trials when the participants agreed with the confederates’ wrong answers). This shows a high level of conformity, called the Asch effect - the extent to which people conform even in an unambiguous situation.

There were considerable individual differences: 25% of the participants never gave a wrong answer, so 75% conformed at least once. A few participants conformed most of the time.

Most participants said they conformed to avoid rejection (normative social influence) and continued to privately trust their own opinions (compliance, going along with others publicly, but not privately).

Some participants recognised that they saw things differently from the group but concluded that they must be suffering from eyestrain or they had been seated in an awkward position. A small majority said they actually saw the lines as the same way as everyone else.

Question 25

What were Asch’s three variations?

Answer 25

1. group size
2. unanimity
3. task difficulty

Question 26

Procedure

Asch (1955) Variables Affecting Conformity

Answer 26

Group size: The number of confederates varied between 1 and 15.

Unanimity: Asch introduced a truthful confederate or a confederate who was dissenting but inaccurate.

Task difficulty: Asch made the line-judging task harder by making the stimulus line and the comparison lines more similar in length.

Question 27

Results and Conclusions

Asch (1955) Variables Affecting Conformity

Answer 27

Group size: With one confederate, conformity to the wrong answer was 3%. With two confederates, this rose to 13.6% and with three it increased to 31.8%. Adding any more confederates made little difference, so he considered 3 to be the optimal group size. (This could be because people got suspicious if there were any more, or they didn’t feel as intimate with the group as they would have had it been smaller).

Unanimity: The presence of a dissenting confederate reduced conformity, whether the dissenter was giving the right or wrong answer. The figure was, on average, 25% wrong answers. Having a dissenter enabled a naive participant to behave more independently.

Task difficulty: Conformity increased when the task was more difficult. So informational social influence plays a greater role when the task becomes harder. The situation is more ambiguous, so we are more likely to look to others for guidance and assume they are right.

Question 28

What are the weaknesses of Asch’s research?

Answer 28

• Findings may be a child of the times.
• The situation and task were artificial.
• Findings only apply to certain groups.
• Findings only apply to certain situations.
• There are ethical issues.

Question 29

Explain why Asch’s findings may be a child of the times.

Answer 29

Perrin and Spencer (1980) found just one conforming response in 396 trials. Participants (UK engineering students) felt more confident measuring lines than Asch’s original sample, so were less conformist.

Also, the 1950s were a conformist time in America and people might be less likely to conform in subsequent decades.

The Asch effect is not consistent over time, so is not an enduring feature of human behaviour.

Question 30

Explain why Asch’s situation and task were artificial.

Answer 30

Participants knew they were in a study so may have just responded to demand characteristics.

The line task was trivial so there was no reason not to conform. Also, the naive participants were in a “group”, but not like groups found in everyday life.

Findings do not generalise to everyday situations where consequences of conformity are important, and where we interact with groups more directly.

Question 31

Explain why Asch’s findings only apply to certain groups.

Answer 31

Only men were tested by Asch. Neto (1995) suggested that women might be more conformist, possibly because they are more concerned about social relationships (and being accepted).

Participants were from the USA, an individualistic culture (people are more concerned with themselves than their social group). Smith and Bond (1998) suggest that conformity rates are higher in collectivist cultures, which are more concerned with group needs.

This suggests that conformity levels are sometimes even higher than Asch found; his findings may be limited to American men.

Question 32

Explain why Asch’s findings only apply to certain situations.

Answer 32

Participants answered out loud and were with a group of strangers they wanted to impress. Conformity could be higher than usual.

But Williams and Sogon (1984) found conformity was higher when the majority were friends rather than strangers.

Therefore the Asch effect varies depending on circumstances.

Question 33

Explain why there are ethical issues associated with Asch’s research.

Answer 33

Naive participants were deceived. They thought the others in the procedure (confederates) were genuine.

But this ethical cost should be weighed against the benefits of the study.

The main benefit was highlighting people’s susceptibility to group conformity and the variables affecting it.

Question 34

What is individualistic culture?

Answer 34

Where people prioritise standing out as an individual over fitting in with the group.

Question 35

What is collectivist culture?

Answer 35

Where people prioritise group loyalty, belonging and fitting into a group over standing out as an individual.

Question 36

What is deindividuation?

Answer 36

The loss of personal self-awareness and responsibility as a result of being in a group.

Question 37

Aim
Zimbardo (1973) The Stanford Prison Experiment

Answer 37

Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues (Haney et al.) set up a mock prison in the basement of the psychology department at Stanford University to test whether the brutality of prison guards was the result of sadistic personalities or whether it was created by the situation.

Question 38

Procedure
Zimbardo (1973) The Stanford Prison Experiment

Answer 38

They recruited 24 ‘emotionally stable’ students determined by psychological testing - randomly assigned roles of guards or prisoners. To increase realism, ‘prisoners’ were arrested in their homes and delivered to the ‘prison’ - blindfolded, strip-searched, deloused and issued a uniform and number.

The prisoners’ daily routines were heavily regulated. There were 16 rules to follow, enforced by guards working I shifts, three at a time.

Question 39

How is deindividuation displayed in Zimbardo’s prison experiment?

Answer 39

De-individuation (losing a sense of personal identity):

• Prisoners’ names were never used, only their numbers so they no longer had personal responsibility for their actions.
• Guards had their own uniform; wooden club, handcuffs, keys and mirror shades. They were told they had complete power over the prisoners.

Question 40

How is conformity and obedience displayed in Zimbardo’s prison experiment?

Answer 40

The experiment investigates both conformity to roles and obedience. The conformity to role comes in the form of total acceptance of the role as prisoner or guard and carrying out the behaviour of that role. The obedience is shown by the prisoners in the obedience to the authority of the guards.

Question 41

What did the contract that the participants signed state?

Answer 41

The participants signed a contract guaranteeing basic living needs: adequate diet and medical care. The contract clearly stated that if they were to be assigned to the role of prisoner, they would have to have some basic civil rights suspended.

Question 42

Results
Zimbardo (1973) The Stanford Prison Experiment

Answer 42

Within two days, the prisoners rebelled against their treatment. They ripped their uniforms and shouted and swore at the guards, who retaliated with fire extinguishers. Guards harassed the prisoners constantly by conducting frequent headcounts, sometimes in the middle of the night. Guards highlighted the differences in social roles by creating opportunities to enforce the rules and punish slight misdemeanours.

The guards took up their roles with enthusiasm. Their behaviour threatened the prisoners’ psychological and physical health. For example:

1. After the rebellion was put down, the prisoners became subdued, anxious and depressed. They became institutionalised very quickly and adapted to their roles.
2. Three prisoners were released early because they showed signs of psychological disturbance.
3. One prisoner went on hunger strike; the guards attempted to form-feed him and punished him by putting him in ‘the hole’, a tiny dark closet.

The study was stopped after six days instead of the planned 14 days.

Question 43

What were the signs of pathological prisoner syndrome?

Answer 43

• the loss of personal identity
• dependency and emasculation
• the arbitrary control exercised by the guards

Question 44

Conclusion
Zimbardo (1973) The Stanford Prison Experiment

Answer 44

The stimulation revealed the power of the situation to influence people’s behaviour. Guards, prisoners and researchers all conformed to their social roles within the prison. The more the guards identified with their roles, the more brutal and aggressive their behaviour became.

Question 45

What is emasculation?

Answer 45

To deprive a man of his male role or identity.

• Use of smocks, no underwear, head stockings.
• Referred to by number.
• Insults.

This lead to dependency.

• The prisoners were totally dependent on the guards.

Question 46

Should Zimbardo’s study have been done?

Answer 46

• The study revealed the power of the situation to influence people’s behaviour.
• Zimbardo’s work has had important implications for the way in which we view cases of blind obedience in real life.
• Zimbardo has made very important contributions to our understanding of social influence and to this point, the ends to justify the means.

Question 47

What are real world applications of Zimbardo’s study?

Answer 47

The guards at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq (2003) were similarly affected by an “evil situation” which led them to behave in ways which they would normally reject. Just like some of the guards in Zimbardo’s prison study, the real-life guards at Abu Ghraib were very creative in their evil behaviour.

Question 48

What are the strengths and weaknesses of Zimbardo’s study?

Answer 48

Strengths
- The researchers had some control over variables.

Weaknesses

• Lack of realism.
• Zimbardo understated dispositional influences.
• Lacks research support and has been contradicted by subsequent research.
• Major ethical issues.

Question 49

Why is control over variables a strength of Zimbardo’s study?

Answer 49

Emotionally stable participants were recruited and randomly assigned the roles of guard or prisoner. The guards and prisoners had those roles only by chance. So their behaviour was due to the pressures of the situation and not their personalities. Control increases the study’s internal validity. We can be more confident in drawing conclusions about the influences of social roles on behaviour.

Question 50

Why is a lack of realism a weakness of Zimbardo’s study?

Answer 50

Banuazizi and Mohavedi (1975) suggest participants were play-acting. Their performances reflected stereotypes of how prisoners and guards are supposed to behave. One guard based his role on a character from the film Cool Hand Luke. Prisoners rioted because they thought that it was what real prisoners did. But Zimbardo’s data showed 90% of the prisoners’ conversations were about prison life. The simulation seemed real to them, increasing the study’s internal validity.

Question 51

Why is understating dispositional influences a weakness of Zimbardo’s study? (Fromm 1973)

Answer 51

Only a third of the guards behaved brutally. Another third applied the rules fairly. The rest supported the prisoners, offering them cigarettes and reinstating privileges. Zimbardo’s conclusion - that participants conformed to social roles - may be over-stated, exaggerating the power of the situation. The differences in the guards’ behaviour show that they could exercise right and wrong choices, despite situational pressures to conform to a role.

Question 52

Why is lacking research support a weakness of Zimbardo’s study?

Answer 52

Reicher and Haslam (2006) partially replicated the SPE, with different findings. Prisoners eventually took control. Tajfel’s (1981) social identity theory explains this. Guards in the replication failed to develop shared social identity as a group, but prisoners did and refused to accept limits to their assigned roles. So the brutality of the guards in the original SPE was due to a shared social identity as a cohesive group, rather than conformity to their social roles.

Question 53

Why were major ethical issues a weakness of Zimbardo’s study?

Answer 53

One issue arose because Zimbardo was both lead researcher and prison superintendent. A student who wanted to leave the study spoke to Zimbardo, who responded as a superintendent worried about running his prison rather than a researcher. This limited Zimbardo’s ability to protect his patients from harm because his superintendent role conflicted with his lead researcher role.