Research Methods - The Experimental and Non-Experimental Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is an experiment?

A

A study that investigates a cause and effect relationship, by comparing the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable in groups of different levels of the independent variable.

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2
Q

What is a laboratory experiment?

A

A procedure staged in an artificial, highly controlled environment. It doesn’t necessarily have to be a laboratory, but it does have to be well controlled. The researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.

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3
Q

What are the strengths of a laboratory experiment?

A
  • There is high control over extraneous variables so the researcher can ensure that the changes in IV caused the effect on the DV. Therefore, the study demonstrates cause and effect (a high internal validity).
  • Replication is more possible than in other types of experiment because of the high level of control (ensures new extraneous variables are not introduced when repeating an experiment). This is important to check that the results are valid and not just one-off.
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4
Q

What are the weaknesses of a laboratory experiment?

A
  • Considered reductionist because it isolates only the variables under consideration, ignoring other variables.
  • May lack generalisability because the lab environment is artificial and not like everyday life (participants might behave in unusual ways). This means their behaviour can’t be generalised beyond the research setting (low external - ecological - validity).
  • Participants are usually aware that they are being tested in a lab so they might behave unnaturally (demand characteristics).
  • The tasks participants carry out in a lab might not represent real-life experience (low mundane realism).
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5
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

A procedure staged in a naturalistic environment. The researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.

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6
Q

What are the strengths of a field experiment?

A
  • Have higher mundane realism than lab experiments because the environment is more natural.
  • Produces behaviour that is more valid and authentic, especially as participants might not know they are being studied (high external validity).
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7
Q

What are the weaknesses of a field experiment?

A
  • Field experiments have less control over extraneous variables. This means cause and effect between the IV and DV is much harder to establish and replication is often not possible.
  • There are ethical issues. If the participants don’t know they’re being studied, they cannot give their consent and so the research might invade their privacy.
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8
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

A study that examines a naturally occurring variable in a real-life situation. The researcher takes advantage of an existing change and does not manipulate the IV.

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9
Q

What are the strengths of a natural experiment?

A
  • The IV is naturally occuring and not manipulated.
  • Allows research to take place that might not be ethical or practical otherwise.
  • High external validity because they involve the study of real-life issues and problems as they happen.
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10
Q

What are the weaknesses of a natural experiment?

A
  • Extraneous variables are difficult to control, and may also be confounding variables, reducing the internal validity of the experiment.
  • A naturally occuring event might happen very rarely, reducing the opportunities for research. This also means that there is less scope for generalising findings to other situations.
  • Participants can’t be randomly allocated to experimental conditions, which means the researcher might be less sure that the IV affects the DV.
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11
Q

What is a quasi experiment?

A

A study that examines an existing difference between people, where the independent variable can’t be manipulated and randomly allocated to groups because it’s a personal characteristic of the participants.

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12
Q

What are the strengths of a quasi experiment?

A
  • They are the only way to study the effect of an IV that is a fixed personal characteristic of the participants (they enable researchers to study variables that can’t be studied in a lab or field experiment).
  • Often carried out under controlled conditions and therefore share the same strengths as a lab experiment.
  • Less chance for bias as there’s no manipulation by the researcher.
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13
Q

What are the weaknesses of a quasi experiment?

A
  • Participants cannot be randomly allocated to the experimental conditions and therefore there might be confounding variables (e.g. participant variables).
  • Reduces internal validity, making it harder to establish cause and effect.
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14
Q

What is an overt observation?

A

When participants are aware of being studied.

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15
Q

What is a covert observation?

A

When participants are unaware of being watched.

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16
Q

What is a participant observation?

A

When the researcher becomes part of the group they are studying.

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17
Q

What is a non-participant observation?

A

When the researcher remains separated from the group.

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18
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

When there is some control/maniupulation of variables, including control of extraneous variables.

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19
Q

What is a naturalistic observation?

A

When the experiment takes place where the target behaviour would normally occur.

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20
Q

What are the advantages of an overt observation?

A
  • more ethically acceptable
  • participants have given their consent to be studied
  • they have the right to withdraw if they wish
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21
Q

What are the disadvantages of a overt observation?

A
  • demand characteristics
  • knowledge of being studied influences behaviour
  • reduces the validity of the findings
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22
Q

What are the advantages of a covert observation?

A
  • demand characteristics reduced

- participants do not know they are being watched so their behaviour will be more natural, increasing the validity

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23
Q

What are the disadvantages of a covert observation?

A
  • ethically questionable
  • people may not want their behaviour recorded, even in public
  • participants’ right to privacy may be affected
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24
Q

What are the advantages of a participant observation?

A
  • can lead to greater insight
  • researcher experiences the situation as the participants do
  • this enhances the validity of the findings
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25
Q

What are the disadvantages of a participant observation?

A
  • possible loss of objectivity
  • the researcher may identify too strongly with those they are studying
  • this threatens the validity and objectivity of the findings
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26
Q

What are the advantages of a non-participant observation?

A
  • more objective
  • researcher maintains an objective distance so there’s less chance of bias
  • may increase the validity of the findings
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27
Q

What are the disadvantages of a non-participant observation?

A
  • loss of insight
  • researcher may be too far removed from those they are studying
  • may reduce the validity of the findings
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28
Q

What are the advantages of a controlled observation?

A
  • can be replicated
  • more easily repeated due to standardised procedures
  • findings can be checked to see if they occur again
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29
Q

What are the disadvantages of a controlled observation?

A
  • may have low external validity
  • behaviour may be contrived as a result of the setting
  • findings cannot be applied to everyday experience
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30
Q

What are the advantages of a naturalistic observation?

A
  • high external validity
  • in a natural context, behaviour is likely to be more spontaneous
  • more generalisable to everyday life
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31
Q

What are the disadvantages of a naturalistic observation?

A
  • low control
  • there may be uncontrolled extraneous variables
  • makes it more difficult to detect patterns
32
Q

What is an unstructured observation?

A

Everything is recorded, which can be quite difficult if a lot is going on.

33
Q

What is a structured observation?

A

Includes behavioural categories and sampling methods.

34
Q

What are observational techniques?

A

A way of seeing or listening to what people do without having to ask them. Observation is often used within an experiment as a way of assessing the dependent variable.

35
Q

What are the advantages of observational techniques?

A

Can capture unexpected behaviours. People often act differently from how they say they will in self-report methods. Observations are useful as they give insight into spontaneous behaviours.

36
Q

What are the disadvantages of observational techniques?

A

Risk of observer bias. Researcher’s interpretation of the situation may be affected by expectations. Bias can be reduced using more than one observer.

37
Q

What is an association?

A

Illustrates the strength and direction of an association between two co-variables.

38
Q

What is a scattergram?

A

Correlations are plotted on a scattergram. One co-variable is on the x-axis, the other is on the y-axis.

39
Q

What are the 3 types of correlation?

A

Positive correlation - when one variable increases, so does the other variable but not always in direct proportion
Negative correlation - when one variable increases, the other variable decreases but not always in direct proportion
Zero correlation - no relationship between the two variables

40
Q

What are the differences between correlations and experiments?

A
  • In an experiment, the effect of an IV is recorded on the DV. In a correlation, you are measuring the relationship between two co-variables and so cause and effect cannot be demonstrated.
  • In a correlation, the influence of EVs is not controlled, so it may be that a third ‘untested’ variable is causing the relationship between the co-variables (called an intervening variable).
41
Q

What are the strengths of correlations?

A

It’s a useful starting point for research. By assessing the strength and direction of a relationship, correlations provide a precise measure of how two variables are related. If variables are strongly related, it may suggest hypotheses for future research.

It is relatively economical. Unlike a lab study, there is no need for a controlled environment and no manipulation of variables is required. Using co-variables rather than manipulation is less interventionist and therefore likely to be more ethical. Correlations are also less time-consuming than experiments, and may be more practical.

42
Q

What are the weaknesses of correlations?

A

You cannot establish a cause and effect relationship. We cannot say that one variable causes the other, because it could be the other way around, or a third variable that hasn’t been studied could be exerting an influence. Correlations are often presented as causal, when they only show how two variables are related.

The method used to measure variables may be flawed. For example, the method used to work out an aggression score might be low in reliability (observational categories might have been used). This would reduce the validity of the correlational study.

43
Q

What are questionnaires?

A

Questionnaires are made up of a pre-set list of written questions (or items) to which a participant responds. They can be used as part of an experiment to assess the dependent variable.

44
Q

What are the advantages of questionnaires?

A
  • Can be distributed to lots of people. Can gather large amounts of data quickly and the researcher need not be present when completed. Reduces the effort involved and makes questionnaires cost-effective.
  • Respondents may be willing to “open-up”. Respondents may share more personal information than in an interview as they are less self-conscious. There may be less chance of social desirability bias compared to an interview.
  • Ethical as people can choose not to complete them.
  • There is no interviewer effect or social desirability bias.
45
Q

What are the disadvantages of questionnaires?

A
  • Responses may not always be truthful. Respondents tend to present themselves in a positive light. Thus social desirability bias is still possible.
  • Response bias. Respondents may favour a particular kind of response, e.g. they always agree. This means that all respondents tend to reply in a similar way.
  • Response rate is low because people don’t have the time or inclination to complete and return the questionnaires.
46
Q

How do you write good questions?

A
  • Avoid jargon: Do you agree that maternal deprivation in infanthood inevitably leads to affectionless psychopathy?
  • Avoid double-barrelled questions: Do you agree that footballers are overpaid and should give 20% of their wages to charity?
  • Avoid leading questions: Do you agree that boxing is barbaric?
47
Q

What are closed-ended questions?

A

Designed with a pre-set list of answers. Respondent has limited choices.

48
Q

What are the advantages of close-ended questions?

A

Quantitative data is objective and easier to analyse. Can produce graphs and charts for comparison. Makes it easier to draw conclusions.

49
Q

What are the disadvantages of close-ended questions?

A

Respondents are restricted. The right answer may not be available as so they may be forced into an answer that isn’t representative of true feelings. This would reduce the validity of the findings. They also may want to elaborate on their answers.

50
Q

What are open-ended questions?

A

Respondents provide their own answers expressed in words, allowing them to answer freely.

51
Q

What are the advantages of open-ended questions?

A

Respondents aren’t restricted. Answers are more likely to provide detailed, unpredictable information. Likely to have more validity than statistics.

52
Q

What are the disadvantages of open-ended questions?

A

Qualitative data is difficult to analyse and is open to interpretation. There’s a wider variety of answers that it produced than by quantitative data. You may be forced to reduce data to statistics.

53
Q

What are interviews?

A

An interview is a non-experimental method as it doesn’t manipulate an IV directly. It’s designed to gain information directly from participants (face-to-face interaction between an interviewer and interviewee).

54
Q

What are the advantages of interviews?

A

They gather information about a person’s beliefs, findings, attitudes and opinions in depth.

55
Q

What are the disadvantages of interviews?

A
  • Social desirability bias; participants may answer with what they think is socially acceptable.
  • Interviewer effect; the characteristics of the interviewer may impact the answers provided.
56
Q

What is a structured interview?

A

A standardised list of pre-determined questions that a respondent is asked. A strict interview schedule is followed so respondents are asked the same questions in the same order. More suitable for large-scale studies.

57
Q

What is a semi-structured interview?

A

A list of questions that have been prepared in advance that is used as a framework. Interviewers are free to ask follow up questions and explore points of discussion where appropriate.

58
Q

What is an unstructured interview?

A

Does not have prepared questions or a schedule to follow. There is a general topic to be discussed but the interaction is free flowing and the interviewee is encouraged to elaborate, as the interviewer directs questions based on answers. More suitable for in-depth information from a small group of people.

59
Q

What are the advantages of a structured interview?

A
  • Easy to replicate because of the standardised format. The format also reduces differences between interviewers.
  • Little training is required.
  • Lots of information can be gathered quickly.
60
Q

What are the disadvantages of a structured interview?

A
  • Interviewees cannot deviate from the topic or elaborate their points. This may be a source of frustration for some.
  • Only superficial information can be accessed.
61
Q

What are the advantages of a semi-structured interview?

A
  • Gives respondents freedom to answer in their own way.

- Interviewers can deviate from the interview schedule to explore the conversation if necessary.

62
Q

What are the disadvantages of a semi-structured interview?

A
  • It is time-consuming to carry out.

- Training is required to know how to conduct.

63
Q

What are the advantages of an unstructured interview?

A
  • Gathers the most in-depth information.
  • There is greater flexibility. Unlike a structured interview, points can be followed up as they arise. More likely to gain insight into interviewee’s worldview.
64
Q

What are the disadvantages of an unstructured interview?

A
  • Difficult to replicate. Such interviews lack structure and are not standardised.
  • Greater risk of interviewer bias.
  • Time-consuming.
  • Interviewers need to be well trained.
65
Q

What is the design of interviews?

A

Interview schedule - A standardised list of questions that the interviewer needs to cover. Can reduce interviewer bias.

Quiet room - Will increase the likelihood that the interviewee will open up.

Rapport - Begin with neutral questions to make participants feel relaxed.

Ethics - Remind interviewees that answers will be treated in confidence.

66
Q

What are correlational studies?

A

A way of establishing whether there is a relationship between two variables. Assessing the strength and direction of that relationship. Unlike experiments, correlational studies do not tell you about causal relationships (we cannot say that it is because one factor varies that the other factor increases/ decreases).

67
Q

What is a correlational co-efficient?

A

A statistical method for assessing the strength of a correlation. The sign (+ or -) tells you the direction of the correlation. The number (between 0 and 1) tells you the strength.

68
Q

What are the differences between correlations and experiments?

A
  • In an experiment, the researcher records the effect of an ID on a DV. In a correlation, you look at the relationship between two co-variables and so cause and effect cannot be demonstrated.
  • In a correlation, the influence of EVs is not controlled, so it may be that a third ‘untested’ variable is causing the relationship between the co-variables (called an intervening variable).
69
Q

What are case studies?

A
  • detailed, in-depth, longitudinal
  • of an individual, institution or group of people
  • small sample size usually
  • unusual and also typical cases
  • uses multiple techniques to research (e.g. interviews, observation, experiment, MRI/PET scans, post-mortem)
  • qualitative (mainly) and quantitative data
  • triangulate results (multiple sources of data)
70
Q

What are the strengths of case studies?

A
  • In-depth qualitative data. Such detail is likely to increase the validity of the data collected.
  • Enables study of unusual behaviour. Some behaviours/conditions are very rare and cannot be studied using other methods. In addition, some cases can help understanding of ‘normal’ functioning.
  • Single case study can generate further research.
  • Single case study can undermine existing theories.
71
Q

What are the weaknesses of case studies?

A
  • Prone to researcher bias. Conclusions are based on the subjective interpretation of the researcher. This may reduce the validity of the study.
  • Participants’ accounts may be biased. Personal accounts (from participants and family) may be prone to inaccuracy/memory decay. Therefore evidence provided may be low in validity.
  • Lack of generalisability.
  • Unscientific/unreliable (lack of applicability).
72
Q

What is the difference between case study and case history?

A

A case history is the record of information that is collected about a person or group. It is something that a doctor or social worker might prepare but it also is an important component of a case study.

The term ‘case study’ refers to the research methods used to collect information about the case being studied - observation, interviews, psychological tests. It is the methods that are used for data collection and analysis.

73
Q

What is content analysis?

A

Content analysis is a type of observational research. People are studied indirectly via the communications they have produced.

This may include:

  • spoken interaction (e.g. a speech or conversation)
  • written forms (e.g. texts or email)
  • examples from the media (e.g. books, magazines, TV)
74
Q

What is coding?

A

Coding may produce quantitative data.

Coding is the first stage of content analysis. Some data sets may be extremely large (such as the transcripts of several dozen lengthy interviews).

So information needs to be categorised into meaningful units. This may involve counting up the number of times a particular word or phrase appears in the text to produce quantitative data.

For instance, newspaper reports may be analysed for the number of times derogatory terms for the mentally ill are used, such as “crazy” or “mad”.

75
Q

What is thematic analysis?

A

Thematic analysis produces qualitative data.

A theme in content analysis refers to any idea that is recurrent, i.e. it keeps cropping up in the communication being studied. These themes are more descriptive than the coding units.

For instance, the mentally ill may be represented in newspapers as a “threat to our children” or as a “drain on the NHS”. Such themes may then be developed into broader categories, such as “control” or “stereotyping” of the mentally ill.

76
Q

What are the strengths of content analysis?

A

Many ethical issues may not apply. The material to study (e.g. TV adverts, films, etc.) may already be in the public domain. So there are no issues with obtaining consent, for example.

A flexible method. Content analysis can be adapted to produce both quantitative and qualitative data as required. This means it is a flexible approach that can be adapted to suit the aims of the research.

77
Q

What are the weaknesses of content analysis?

A

Communication is studied out of context. The researcher may attribute motivations to the speaker or writer that were not intended. This is likely to reduce the validity of the conclusions drawn.

Content analysis may lack objectivity, especially when more descriptive forms of thematic analysis are used. Such bias may threaten the validity of the findings and conclusions. However, reflexivity is a method of addressing the lack of objectivity. Personal viewpoints are seen as an important part of the data collected.