Research Methods - Scientific Processes Flashcards
1
Q
What is the dependent variable?
A
The variable being measured in a study.
2
Q
What is the independent variable?
A
The variable directly controlled and manipulated by the researcher.
3
Q
What is the controlled variable?
A
The variable that is not changed and kept the same.
4
Q
What is an extraneous variable?
A
A variable that is not controlled, which could affect the results of a study. They do not vary systematically with the independent variable.
5
Q
What is a confounding variable?
A
An extraneous variable that varies systematically with the level of the independent variable, so we cannot be sure if any observed change in the dependent variable is due to the independent variable.
6
Q
What is a situational variable?
A
An extraneous variable present in the environment of the study.
7
Q
What is operationalisation?
A
Making the variables in an investigation detailed and specific (a clear definition of how they will be measured).
8
Q
What is an aim?
A
An aim is a clear and precise statement of the purpose of the study. It is a statement of why a research study is taking place. This should include what is being studied and what the study is trying to achieve.
9
Q
What is the method?
A
The exact procedure that the investigator follows when carrying out the experiment.
10
Q
What are the results?
A
The changes that are observed in the experiment.
11
Q
What is the conclusion?
A
The interpretation of the results.
12
Q
What is a hypothesis?
A
A hypothesis is a precise, testable statement of what the researcher predicts will be the outcome of the study (also known as alternative hypothesis or research hypothesis).
13
Q
What is an experimental hypothesis?
A
The name given to a hypothesis when used in field and laboratory experiments.
14
Q
What is a null hypothesis?
A
A prediction that the results will fail to show any difference (or relationships) that is consistent or systematic, and suggests that any difference or effect from the study occurs by chance and not because of the variables that you have manipulated or the sample that you have drawn.
15
Q
What do we do if the hypothesis is supported or not supported by our results?
A
If our hypothesis is not supported, we reject the alternate hypothesis and retain the Null. If the results do support our alternate hypothesis, then we reject the Null and retain our alternate hypothesis. The Null is not the opposite of the alternate.
16
Q
What is a directional hypothesis?
A
A hypothesis that predicts the direction the results will go in.
17
Q
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
A
A hypothesis that predicts that a difference/relationship will be found, but does not specify what the difference/relationship will be.
18
Q
What are the levels of IV?
A
The different versions of the independent variable.
19
Q
What is the BPS?
A
British Psychological Society
20
Q
What is the Ethical Conduct?
A
- respect
- competence
- responsibility
- integrity (honest and genuine)
21
Q
What are the ethical guidelines?
A
- informed consent
- right to withdraw
- deception/debriefing
- privacy
- confidentiality
- competence
- protection from harm
22
Q
What is informed consent?
A
Participants should be briefed with as much information as possible about a study to enable them to make an informed judgement as to whether to take part or not. However, it’s not always possible to give a lot of information as it may impact the results of the study. Additionally, not everyone is capable of giving informed consent (too young, disability, post-mortem etc) so someone else may have to give it for them.
23
Q
What is the right to withdraw?
A
We must make participants aware that they are free to leave a study at any time, even if we’ve paid them. They can also refuse permission for their data to be used.
24
Q
What is deception?
A
Deception is being lied to when it’s necessary to get honest results. Sometimes information is kept from participants, but sometimes wrong information is told. Deception should only be used if there is no alternative. We should seek approval from an ethics committee, and it is not justified by debriefing.
25
What is debriefing?
When after the experiment, participants are told the truth. We must always debrief participants after a study to allow them to ask questions and for the researcher to remind them again of their right to withdraw.
26
What is privacy?
Ensures that for studies that involve people, names are not recorded and must not be identifiable. Often difficult if we're conducting observations when people are unaware they're being watched, but we must maintain their right to privacy. We should only observe people where they would expect to be observed by others in public places.
27
What is confidentiality?
Information about our participants is protected by the Data Protection Act. They must not be identifiable in published research. Participants are given numbers or referred to by a code or their initials. Confidentiality ensures information gained must not be shared with others without permission. This is broken in some occasions for safety.
28
What is competence?
A psychologist's ability to conduct a study.
29
What is protection from harm?
Looking after the rights and welfare of participants to ensure there is no psychological or physiological damage. We cannot expose them to greater risk than their normal life experiences.
30
What is the difference between a natural and a quasi experiment?
In both experiments, the IV isn't manipulated and randomly allocated to groups, but the reasons why are different. In quasi experiments, the IV is a personal characteristic that CANNOT be manipulated. In a natural experiment, the IV is an event that in theory COULD be manipulated, but it isn't ethical or practical to do so.
31
What is the difference between a target population and a sample?
A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about. A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from.
32
What is opportunity sampling?
Opportunity sampling is the sampling technique most used by psychology students. It consists of taking the sample from people who are willing and available at the time the study is carried out and fit the criteria you are looking for.
33
What are the advantages of opportunity sampling?
It is the quickest, simplest and most convenient method. It demands less effort compared to other techniques.
34
What are the disadvantages of opportunity sampling?
It can lead to a biased sample because not everyone of the target population will be available at the time, giving unrepresentative data that cannot be generalised.
35
What is random sampling?
This is a sampling technique which is defined as a sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. This involves identifying everyone in the target population and then selecting the number of participants you need in a way that gives everyone in the population an equal chance of being picked.
36
What are the advantages of random sampling?
- it generates a representative sample that is unbiased as the researcher has no control over who is selected
- helps to control participant variables that may affect the findings of the whole study
37
What are the disadvantages of random sampling?
- difficult to carry out when the target population is large as the sample would also have to be large
- participants still have to agree to take part, and if some refuse, this will lead to a less representative sample
38
What is stratified sampling?
Stratified sampling involves classifying the population into categories and then choosing a sample which consists of participants from each category in the same proportions as they are in the population.
39
What are the advantages of stratified sampling?
- useful if a small subgroup of the target population may be missed by using a random sampling technique
- ensures that the sample is completely representative as a cross section of a target population
40
What are the disadvantages of stratified sampling?
- difficult and time-consuming to carry out
- it is difficult to represent all the sub-groups within a population which may affect how representative the sample is (i.e. you may miss out a sub-group)
- people can still refuse to take part, leading to a sample error which can then lead to invalid conclusions being drawn about the target population
41
What is self-selected/volunteer sampling?
A volunteer sampling technique involves gathering a sample of participants who are willing to volunteer themselves to take part in a study. This often involves advertising the study in some way.
42
What are the advantages of self-selected/volunteer sampling?
- it involves minimal effort on the part of researchers in identifying and selecting a sample
- most ethical sampling method because participants do not have to be asked to participate directly, thus avoiding placing pressure on people to participate
- there is no bias from the experimenter in the choice of participants, and there are no particular groups of people who will be over-represented
43
What are the disadvantages of self-selected/volunteer sampling?
- often unrepresentative because not everyone will see the advert or want to respond
- can lead to a biased sample as volunteers tend to be a particular type of personality or have time and the inclination to participate (volunteers may be different from non-volunteers), making the findings unreliable
44
What is systematic sampling?
Systematic sampling is where participants are selected using a set "pattern" or sampling frame, where every nth member of the target population is selected from the list.
45
What are the advantages of systematic sampling?
There is no bias as the researcher does not decide the sampling system. The first item is usually selected at random and it is an objective method.
46
What are the disadvantages of systematic sampling?
It takes a lot of time and effort, and a complete list of the population is required. You may as well use random sampling.
47
What is snowball sampling?
Snowball sampling is when participants recruit other participants for a test or a study.
48
What are the advantages of snowball sampling?
It is good for difficult to reach participants.
49
What are the disadvantages of snowball sampling?
It may be unrepresentative as participants could still refuse to take part, and people may only recruit other people that are similar to themselves.
50
What is the independent measures design?
This involves splitting participants into groups and testing each group in only one condition of the study. This is also known as an independent groups design.
51
What are the strengths of the independent measures design?
- there are no order effects as participants only take part in one condition of the study, so can't practise or become bored/tired
- less demand characteristics as participants are only tested once and so are unlikely to guess the research aims
52
What are the weaknesses of the independent measures design?
- more participants are needed, which is time-consuming and expensive
- participant variables mean there will be individual differences between the groups
53
How can you control the problems in the independent measures design?
Participants can be randomly allocated to each condition.
54
What is the repeated measures design?
This involves using the same participants in all conditions of a study.
55
What are the strengths of the repeated measures design?
- more economical as fewer participants are needed so there's less time spent recruiting participants
- there are no individual differences between the conditions of the study so participant variables are controlled
56
What are the weaknesses of the repeated measures design?
- demand characteristics are more likely as participants are more able to guess the aim, and then change their behaviour to match, reducing the validity of the results
- order effects means that results may reflect practise or fatigue, reducing the validity of the results
57
How can you control the problems in the repeated measures design?
Order effects can be controlled using counterbalancing or randomisation.
58
What is the matched pairs design?
This uses different people in each condition of the study, but matches them for likeliness on important characteristics.
59
What are the strengths of the matched pairs design?
- no order effects as participants are only tested once so no practise or fatigue effects, enhancing the validity of the results
- participants variables are controlled so fair comparisons can be made between the groups, enhancing the validity of the results
60
What are the weaknesses of the matched pairs design?
- more participants are needed so it's expensive
| - it is time-consuming to match the participants and not all characteristics can be equally matched
61
What are behavioural categories?
The target behaviours to be observed should be broken up into a set of observable categories. This is similar to the idea of operationalisation.
62
What are the disadvantages of behavioural categories?
Difficult to make clear and unambiguous. Categories should be self-evident and not overlap, not always possible to achieve. "Smiling" and "grinning" would be poor categories. Dustbin categories - all forms of behaviour should be in the list and not one "dustbin". "Dumped" behaviours go unrecorded.
63
What is time sampling?
Observations are made at regular intervals, e.g. once every 15 seconds.
64
What are the advantages of time sampling?
Reduces the number of observations. Rather than recording everything that is seen (i.e. continuous), data is recorded at certain intervals. The observation is more structured and systematic.
65
What are the disadvantages of time sampling?
May be unrepresentative. The researcher may miss important details outside of the time-scale. May not reflect the whole behaviour.
66
What is event sampling?
A target behaviour/event is recorded every time it occurs.
67
What are the advantages of event sampling?
May record infrequent behaviours. The researcher will still "pick up" behaviours that do not occur at regular intervals. Such behaviours could easily be missed using time sampling.
68
What are the disadvantages of event sampling?
Complex behaviours would be oversimplified. If the event is too complex, important details may go unrecorded. This may affect the validity of the findings.
69
What is a pilot study?
A pilot study is an initial, small-scale run of the procedures to be used in an investigation (i.e. trial run); it involves selecting a few people and trying out the study on them.
70
What are the strengths of a pilot study?
- It is possible to save time, and in some cases, money, by identifying any flaws in the procedures designed by the researcher and correcting them.
- A pilot study can help the researcher spot any ambiguities (i.e. unusual things) or confusion in the information given to participants or problems with the task devised.
71
How can piloting be used in self-report methods?
It is helpful to try out questions in advance and remove or reword those that are ambiguous or confusing.
72
How can piloting be used in observational studies?
A pilot study provides a way of checking coding systems before the real investigation is undertaken. This may be an important part of training observers.
73
What is a single-blind procedure?
Details may be kept from participants, such as which condition of the study they are in and whether there is another condition at all. This is known as a single-blind procedure and is an attempt to control for the confounding effects of demand characteristics.
74
What is a double-blind procedure?
In a double-blind procedure, neither the participants nor the researcher who conducts the study is aware of the aims of the investigation (often a third party conducts the investigation without knowing its main purpose).
Double-blind procedures are often an important feature of drug trials. Treatment may be administered to patients by someone who is independent of the investigation and who doesn't know which drugs are real and which are placebos ("fake" drugs).
75
Why are control groups and conditions used?
Control is used in many experimental studies for the purpose of comparison. If the change in behaviours of the experimental group is significantly greater than that of the control group, then the researcher can conclude that the cause of this effect was the independent variable (assuming all other possible confounding variables have remained constant).
76
What are demand characteristics?
Refers to any cue from the researcher or research situation that may reveal the aim of the study.
77
What are investigator effects?
Any effect of the investigator's behaviour on the outcome of the research.
78
What is randomisation?
The use of chance when designing investigations to control for the effects of bias.
79
What is standardisation?
Using exactly the same formalised procedures for all participants in a research study.
80
What is peer review?
Before publication, all aspects of the investigation are scrutinised by experts ('peers') in the field. These experts should be objective and unknown to the researcher.
81
What are the aims of peer review?
- Funding: allocate research funding.
- Validation: of the quality and relevance of research.
- Improvements: and amendments are suggested.
82
What are the advantages of peer review?
- Protects the quality of published research.
- Minimises possibility of fraudulent research and means published research is of the highest quality.
- Preserves the reputation of psychology as a science and increases the credibility and status of the subject.
83
What are the disadvantages of peer review?
- May be used to criticise rival research. A minority of reviewers may use their anonymous status to criticise rival researchers. Often there is competition for limited research funding so this may be an issue.
- Publication bias. Tendency for editors of journals to want to publish 'headline grabbing' findings. Means that research that does not meet this criterion is ignored or disregarded.
- Ground-breaking research may be buried. Reviewers may be much more critical of research that contradicts their own view. Peer review may slow down the rate of change within scientific disciplines.
84
How does the findings of psychological research benefit our economic prosperity?
- Attachment research into the role of the father.
| - The development of treatment for mental illness.
85
How has attachment research into the role of the father benefited our economic prosperity?
- Recent research has stressed the importance of multiple attachments and the role of the father in healthy psychological development.
- This may promote more flexible working arrangements in the family.
- This means that modern parents are better equipped to contribute more effectively to the economy.
86
How has psychology contributed to the development of treatment for mental illness?
- A third of all days off work are caused by mental disorders such as depression.
- Psychological research into the causes and treatments of mental disorders means that patients have their condition diagnosed quickly.
- Patients have access to therapies or psychotherapeutic drugs, such as SSRIs.
- Sufferers can manage their condition effectively, return to work and contribute to the economy.
87
When writing a report, what should the title contain?
This is the first thing that every report should contain. It should state what the study is about and include the generalised IV and DV.
88
When writing a report, what should the abstract contain?
This is a concise summary of the research (150-200 words), telling the reader about the research and findings without their having to read the whole report. It should include brief descriptions of the aims and hypotheses of the study, the method, and a summary of the results. It should also contain interpretations of the findings and any significant flaws in the study.
89
When writing a report, what should the introduction contain?
A look at relevant theories, concepts, and studies that are related to the current study. The research review should follow a logical progression - beginning broadly and becoming more specific until the aims and hypotheses are presented.
90
When writing a report, what should the aim and hypotheses contain?
- This states the purpose of the study.
- The hypothesis operationalises what is actually going to be tested and expresses the likely outcome as either a directional or a non-directional hypothesis, and should include the IV and the DV.
- There also has to be a null hypothesis that states that there will be no relationship between the IV and the DV.
91
When writing a report, what should the method contain?
This section describes how the research was carried out. Other researchers need to be able to replicate the study by following exactly the same method, so it needs to be detailed.
This section should include information on the design of the study:
- the research method used (field experiment, questionnaire)
- the research design (repeated measures, independent measures)
- the variables and how they were controlled
- how ethical issues were dealt with
It should also describe the procedure used:
- what happened each time a participant took part
- how the researcher and the investigation were introduced to the participant and how informed consent was obtained
- the instructions (standardised)
- how the study was carried out and how the participants were debriefed
- how the data was recorded
This section will also describe the use of participants:
- the number of participants
- the demographics of the participants (age, gender, employment)
- the sampling method used
- how participants were allocated to conditions
It will outline the resources used:
- the materials
- any apparatus
92
When writing a report, what should the results contain?
This section reports on the outcomes of the study as descriptive or inferential statistics. This section will also explain why certain tests were chosen and the results of the test, including: the observed value, the critical value, and the level of significance.
A summary of key findings from the investigation.
- descriptive statistics such as tables, graphs and charts, measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion
- inferential statistics including reference to the choice of statistical test, calculated and critical values, the level of significance and the final outcome (i.e. which hypothesis was rejected and which retained)
- any raw data that was collected and any calculations appear in an appendix rather than the main body of the report
93
When writing a report, what should the discussion contain?
This section covers a range of things, including:
- An explanation of the findings, summarising the results and relating them to the aim and hypothesis.
- The null hypothesis should be accepted or rejected in this section and any unexpected findings referred to and explained.
- The implications of the study (e.g. how the findings could be used in a practical way).
- The limitations and modifications of the study (any problems or limitations need to be explained, along with suggestions as to how the study could be improved in the future).
- The relationship to background research is discussed in the introduction.
- The data should be compared to other data and comments made on whether or not the findings of the study support the findings of other studies.
- Suggestions for further research (at least two ideas for further research should be included).
- Wider real-world implications of the research are considered.
94
When writing a report, what should the references contain?
This section contains a list of all the books, articles, studies, and websites that have been used for information during the study. It allows the reader to see where the information on the research and theories mentioned in the introduction came from. This section is presented in alphabetical order of the first letter of the author's surname.
95
When writing a report, what should the appendices contain?
Any materials used can go in this section, e.g. sample questionnaires or diagrams, raw data and statistical test calculations, etc.
96
Why do we reference?
- to avoid plagiarism
- to give credit to other researchers and acknowledge their contributions to the field
- to allow other academics to follow up any research of interest and in your work
- to demonstrate that your arguments are clearly supported by evidence
- to follow the good practice of academic values and give your work integrity
97
What is reliability?
Reliability is a measure of consistency. If a particular measurement is repeated and the same result is obtained then that measurement is described as being reliable.
98
How can you assess reliability?
- test-retest
- inter-observer
- correlation
99
What is test-retest?
Test-retest: Test the same person twice.
The same test or questionnaire is given to the same person (or people) on two or more different occasions. If the test or questionnaire is reliable, the results should be the same (or very similar) each time it is administered.
100
What is inter-observer?
Inter-observer: Compares observations from different observers.
In an observation, two or more observers compare their data by conducting a pilot study - a small-scale trial run of the observation to check that observers are applying behavioural categories in the same way.
Observers should watch the same event, or sequence of events, but record their data independently.
101
How is reliability measured using a correlation?
In test-retest and inter-observer reliability, the two sets of scores are correlated. The correlation coefficient should exceed +.80 for reliability.
102
How can you improve reliability?
- questionnaires: rewrite questions
- interviews: improved training
- experiments: standardised procedures
- observations: operationalisation of behavioural categories
103
How do you improve reliability in questionnaires?
A questionnaire that produces low test-retest reliability may need some items to be deselected or rewritten. The researcher may replace some open questions (which can be misinterpreted) with closed, fixed choice alternatives which may be less ambiguous.
104
How do you improve reliability in interviews?
The best way of ensuring reliability in an interview is to use the same interviewer each time. If this is not possible, all interviewers must be trained (e.g. so they avoid questions that are leading or ambiguous).
105
How do you improve reliability in experiments?
Lab experiments are often described as being reliable because of the strict control over many aspects of the procedure, such as the instructions that the participants receive and the conditions within which they are tested.
106
How do you improve reliability in observations?
Behavioural categories should be measurable (e.g. 'pushing' is less open to interpretation than 'aggression').
Categories should not overlap (e.g. 'hugging' and 'cuddling') and all possible behaviours should be included.
If categories are overlapping or absent, different observers have to use their own judgement in deciding what to record and where, and may end up with inconsistent records.
107
What is validity?
Validity measures whether an observed effect is genuine and represents what is actually 'out there' in the real world.
Data can be reliable but not valid. For instance, a test that claims to measure intelligence (IQ test) may produce the same result every time when the same people are tested but not measure what it is designed to.
108
What is ecological validity?
Ecological validity refers to whether findings can be generalised from one setting to another, most particularly generalised to everyday life.
This may not be related to the setting (e.g. a lab) but more to the task that participants are asked to perform.
109
What is temporal validity?
Findings should be consistent over time. For example, Asch's study may lack temporal validity because it was conducted during a conformist era in American history.
110
How can you assess validity?
- face validity
| - concurrent validity
111
What is face validity?
Whether a test looks like it measures what it should. A basic method to assess validity, achieved by simply 'eyeballing' the measuring instrument or by passing it to an expert to check.
112
What is concurrent validity?
Whether findings are similar to those on a well-established test.
A new intelligence test, for instance, may be administered to a group of participants. Their scores are then compared with performance on a well-established test (correlation should exceed +.80 for validity).
113
How can you improve validity?
- experiments: control group and standardisation
- questionnaires: lie scale and confidentiality
- observations: good categories
- qualitative research: interpretive validity and triangulation
114
How do you improve validity in experiments?
A control group means that the researcher is more confident that changes in the DV were due to the effect of the IV.
Standardised procedures minimise the impact of participant reactivity and investigator effects.
115
How do you improve validity in questionnaires?
Lie scales control for the effects of social desirability bias.
Respondents are assured that all data submitted is confidential.
116
How do you improve validity in observations?
Behavioural categories that are well-defined, thoroughly operationalised and not ambiguous or overlapping.
117
How do you improve validity in qualitative research?
Interpretive validity demonstrated through the coherence of the reporting and the inclusion of direct quotes from participants.
Triangulation involves using a number of different sources as evidence (e.g. interview data, personal diaries, etc.).
118
What are the features of science?
- paradigms and paradigm shifts
- theory construction
- hypothesis testing
- falsifiability
- objectivity
- empirical method
119
What are paradigms and paradigm shifts?
Kuhn (1962) said that what distinguishes scientific disciplines from non-scientific disciplines is a shared set of assumptions and methods - a paradigm.
Kuhn argued that social sciences (including psychology) lack a universally accepted paradigm and are best seen as 'pre-science', unlike natural sciences such as biology.
Paradigm shifts occur, according to Kuhn, when there is a scientific resolution. A handful of researchers begin to question the accepted paradigm when there is too much contradictory evidence to ignore.
120
What is theory construction?
A theory is a set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours.
Testing a theory depends on being able to make clear and precise predictions on the basis of the theory (i.e. to state a number of possible hypotheses).
A hypothesis can then be tested using scientific methods to determine whether it will be supported or refuted.
The process of deriving a new hypothesis from an existing theory is known as deduction.
121
What is falsifiability?
Popper (1959) argued that the key criterion of a scientific theory is its falsifiability. Genuine scientific theories should hold themselves up for hypothesis testing and the possibility of being proved false.
Popper distinguished between theories which can be challenged, and what he called 'pseudosciences' which couldn't be falsified.
He believed that even when a scientific principle had been successfully snd repeatedly tested, it was not necessarily true. Instead it had simply not been proved false yet.
122
What is replicability?
If a scientific theory is to be 'trusted', the findings from it must be shown to be repeatable across a number of different contexts.
By repeating a study, as Popper suggested, we can see the extent to which the findings can be generalised.
123
What is objectivity?
Scientific researchers must keep a 'critical distance' during research. They must not allow their personal opinions or biases to 'discolour' the data or influence the behaviour of participants.
As a general rule, those methods in psychology that are associated with the greatest level of control (such as lab experiments) tend to be the most objective.
124
What are empirical methods?
The word empiricism is derived from the Greek for 'experience'. Empirical methods emphasise the importance of data collection based on direct, sensory experience.
The experimental method and the observational method are good examples of the empirical method in psychology.
Early empiricists such as John Locke saw knowledge as determined only by experience and sense perception. A theory cannot claim to be scientific unless it has been empirically tested.
