social exclusion and the underclass and sociological criminology Flashcards
is there a single cause of crime?
no, there is no one ‘cause’ of crime. Crime is a complex phenomenon that varies across cultures and over time
how can legality differ between countries?
activities that are legal in one country, such as alcohol consumption in the UK, can be illegal in others, like in strict Muslim countries
why is it difficult to define crime?
there is no simple answer to the question ‘what is crime?’ and therefore no single answer to ‘what causes crime?’ Different types of crime often have distinct causes
what do sociological approaches suggest about crime?
sociological approaches indicate that crime is shaped by external factors, such as experiences within the neighbourhood, peer groups, and family
what are Individual Difference Theories?
these theories focus on the unique characteristics of individuals that may lead to criminal behaviour, emphasising personal traits and psychological factors
what do Social Structural Theories examine?
these macro-sociological theories look at how societal structures, such as socioeconomic status and community dynamics, influence crime rates
what is Strain Theory?
strain Theory posits that crime occurs when individuals experience a disconnect between societal goals and the means available to achieve them, leading to frustration and deviance
what is Social Disorganisation Theory?
this theory suggests that crime is more likely to occur in communities with weak social structures and low levels of community cohesion
what do Subcultural Theories focus on?
these theories examine how specific subcultures develop their own norms and values, which may support or encourage criminal behaviour
what are Social Process Theories?
these micro-sociological theories explore how interactions and relationships within society contribute to criminal behaviour
what is Differential Association Theory?
this theory asserts that criminal behaviour is learned through interactions with others, particularly within intimate groups
what does Social Control Theory suggest?
social Control Theory posits that strong social bonds and community ties can prevent individuals from engaging in criminal behaviour
what is the Labelling Perspective?
this perspective focuses on how being labeled as a criminal can influence an individual’s self-identity and lead to further criminal behaviour
what is the intellectual history of the sociological study of crime and punishment?
the sociological study of crime and punishment has a rich intellectual history that encompasses multiple traditions. Some of these traditions trace their roots to European social theorists of the nineteenth century, such as Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Karl Marx
how does American sociology differ in its approach to crime and punishment compared to European traditions?
not all sociological work on crime and punishment descends in a ‘top down’ fashion from European sources. There is a long tradition in American sociology of ‘bottom up’ inquiry that begins with intensive empirical research into the dynamics of crime and punishment, building conceptual frameworks upon that foundation, as seen in the Chicago School
what is the first key contribution of sociologists to the study of crime and punishment?
the first key contribution is often called a ‘relational approach,’ which emphasises the relationships and interactions between individuals and their social environments
what is the second key contribution of sociologists to the study of crime and punishment?
the second key contribution is an attention to context, recognising the specific social, economic, and cultural factors that influence crime
what is the third key contribution of sociologists to the study of crime and punishment?
the third key contribution is a concern with social hierarchies of all kinds, examining how class, race, and gender impact crime and the criminal justice system
what is a “relational approach” in the study of crime and punishment from a sociological perspective?
a “relational approach” focuses on the dynamic relationships between the objects of study, which can include individuals, social groups, neighbourhoods, organisations, nation-states, or regions of the world, rather than just the attributes of individuals or specific groups
how does the sociological perspective differ in its focus when studying crime and punishment?
the distinctive aspect of the sociological perspective is its emphasis on the interactions and relationships between various objects of study instead of solely concentrating on individual characteristics or specific group attributes
what is the second important contribution sociologists make to the study of crime and punishment?
sociologists bring an attention to context, which involves situating phenomena within their social, cultural, and political environments, as well as considering historical and economic contexts
how does attention to context benefit sociologists in their study of crime and punishment?
this attention to context allows sociologists to create compelling narratives about crime and punishment, illustrating how laws are implemented in specific situations and how social processes and decision-making related to social control occur through social interaction, both within the criminal justice system and in civil society
what is the third tendency in sociological inquiry regarding crime and punishment?
the third tendency is a concern with social hierarchies of all kinds, including power, domination, coercion, and inequality
how do sociologists view the influence of social hierarchies on criminal justice systems?
sociologists are concerned with how various forms of power, whether based on race, ethnicity, gender, social class, or organisational structures, influence criminal justice systems and their operations
how is crime viewed in the context of social constructs?
crime is seen as a label applied to certain acts or omissions under specific circumstances, indicating that it is a product of culturally bounded social interaction
what does Edwin Schur suggest about the definition of crime?
Schur emphasises that crime is defined by criminal law and is variable in content. Therefore, explanations of crime that focus solely on individual motivation and behaviour cannot be complete
what did Sutherland’s research reveal about crime in American organisations?
Sutherland found that crime was widespread in politics, business, and the professions, with American organisations frequently violating legal standards and being characterised as “masters of exploitation” and “habitual criminals.”
how did Sutherland describe the acceptance of illegal practices in businesses?
Sutherland highlighted that illegal practices were often accepted as a way of “doing business,” suggesting that the context and environment in which a person worked could lead to future criminal acts
what were the 2 concepts of social exclusion by Sutherland?
- differential association
- differential social organisation
how is criminal behaviour described by Sutherland?
criminal behaviour is learned
in what context is criminal behaviour learned?
criminal behaviour is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication
where does the principal part of learning criminal behaviour occur?
the principal part of the learning of criminal behaviour occurs within intimate personal groups
what does the learning of criminal behaviour include?
The learning includes:
(a) techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very simple
(b) the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalisations, and attitudes
how is the specific direction of motives and drives learned?
it is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favourable or unfavourable
what leads a person to become delinquent according to Sutherland?
a person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favourable to violation of law over definitions unfavourable to violation of law
how may differential associations vary?
differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity
what does the process of learning criminal behaviour involve?
it involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning
why can’t criminal behaviour be fully explained by general needs and values?
while criminal behaviour is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those needs and values since non-criminal behaviour is also an expression of the same needs and values
what is a professional thief an example of?
a professional thief is a good example of a behaviour system that can be explained and defined as a unit
how do professional thieves engage in theft?
professional thieves engage in theft as a regular occupation
how long do professional thieves sustain their involvement in theft?
they sustain their involvement in this occupation over a large part of their lives
what do professional thieves use in their occupation?
they use a body of special knowledge and skills
how are these skills and knowledge developed?
they have been developed over time
how is this knowledge passed along?
it is passed along through traditions and personal associations
how would you describe the sophistication of a professional thief?
the professional thief is sophisticated
what is a key characteristic of a professional thief regarding their work?
regular work at theft
what level of skill do professional thieves possess?
expertise
what is meant by “consensus” in the context of professional thieves?
it refers to a shared understanding or agreement among thieves about practices and norms
how is the status of professional thieves described?
they have a certain status within their criminal community
what does “organisation” refer to in the context of professional thieves?
it refers to the structured way in which they operate, as noted by Sutherland et al
how do these characteristics help differentiate professional thieves?
these characteristics distinguish professional thieves from other thieves
what is “esprit de corps” in the context of professional thieves?
it refers to a sense of camaraderie and unity among professional thieves
how do professional thieves associate with one another compared to outsiders?
they associate with one another but do not associate with outsiders on the same basis
how do professional thieves choose their colleagues and partners?
they select their colleagues and partners very carefully
what is the significance of differential association among thieves?
it leads to the development of a common language or argot that is generally unknown to those outside the profession
what does “utelage” refer to?
guidance or protection provided to someone, often in the context of learning or development
who provided key insights into differential association in professional theft?
Sutherland
What did Sutherland observe about professional theft?
he noted that it reflected the processes that occur in all crime
how did Sutherland describe his observations in professional theft?
he said he seemed to see in magnified form the process that occurs in all crime
what is a critique regarding Sutherland’s explanation of criminal behaviour?
Sutherland never specifies the precise underlying learning mechanism involved in the process of becoming a criminal
what aspect of behaviour does Sutherland fail to acknowledge in his theory?
he does not acknowledge that people can be conditioned to act in certain ways, such as being rewarded for conforming behaviour
what is a significant criticism of differential association theory according to Matseuda?
the theory cannot be tested empirically
what does Social Learning Theory suggest about deviant behaviour?
deviant behaviour can be expected to the extent that it has been differentially reinforced over alternative behaviour
according to Akers, how is deviant behaviour perceived in certain situations?
it is defined as desirable or justified when the individual is in a situation discriminative for the behaviour
