social exclusion and the underclass and sociological criminology Flashcards
is there a single cause of crime?
no, there is no one ‘cause’ of crime. Crime is a complex phenomenon that varies across cultures and over time
how can legality differ between countries?
activities that are legal in one country, such as alcohol consumption in the UK, can be illegal in others, like in strict Muslim countries
why is it difficult to define crime?
there is no simple answer to the question ‘what is crime?’ and therefore no single answer to ‘what causes crime?’ Different types of crime often have distinct causes
what do sociological approaches suggest about crime?
sociological approaches indicate that crime is shaped by external factors, such as experiences within the neighbourhood, peer groups, and family
what are Individual Difference Theories?
these theories focus on the unique characteristics of individuals that may lead to criminal behaviour, emphasising personal traits and psychological factors
what do Social Structural Theories examine?
these macro-sociological theories look at how societal structures, such as socioeconomic status and community dynamics, influence crime rates
what is Strain Theory?
strain Theory posits that crime occurs when individuals experience a disconnect between societal goals and the means available to achieve them, leading to frustration and deviance
what is Social Disorganisation Theory?
this theory suggests that crime is more likely to occur in communities with weak social structures and low levels of community cohesion
what do Subcultural Theories focus on?
these theories examine how specific subcultures develop their own norms and values, which may support or encourage criminal behaviour
what are Social Process Theories?
these micro-sociological theories explore how interactions and relationships within society contribute to criminal behaviour
what is Differential Association Theory?
this theory asserts that criminal behaviour is learned through interactions with others, particularly within intimate groups
what does Social Control Theory suggest?
social Control Theory posits that strong social bonds and community ties can prevent individuals from engaging in criminal behaviour
what is the Labelling Perspective?
this perspective focuses on how being labeled as a criminal can influence an individual’s self-identity and lead to further criminal behaviour
what is the intellectual history of the sociological study of crime and punishment?
the sociological study of crime and punishment has a rich intellectual history that encompasses multiple traditions. Some of these traditions trace their roots to European social theorists of the nineteenth century, such as Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Karl Marx
how does American sociology differ in its approach to crime and punishment compared to European traditions?
not all sociological work on crime and punishment descends in a ‘top down’ fashion from European sources. There is a long tradition in American sociology of ‘bottom up’ inquiry that begins with intensive empirical research into the dynamics of crime and punishment, building conceptual frameworks upon that foundation, as seen in the Chicago School
what is the first key contribution of sociologists to the study of crime and punishment?
the first key contribution is often called a ‘relational approach,’ which emphasises the relationships and interactions between individuals and their social environments
what is the second key contribution of sociologists to the study of crime and punishment?
the second key contribution is an attention to context, recognising the specific social, economic, and cultural factors that influence crime
what is the third key contribution of sociologists to the study of crime and punishment?
the third key contribution is a concern with social hierarchies of all kinds, examining how class, race, and gender impact crime and the criminal justice system
what is a “relational approach” in the study of crime and punishment from a sociological perspective?
a “relational approach” focuses on the dynamic relationships between the objects of study, which can include individuals, social groups, neighbourhoods, organisations, nation-states, or regions of the world, rather than just the attributes of individuals or specific groups
how does the sociological perspective differ in its focus when studying crime and punishment?
the distinctive aspect of the sociological perspective is its emphasis on the interactions and relationships between various objects of study instead of solely concentrating on individual characteristics or specific group attributes
what is the second important contribution sociologists make to the study of crime and punishment?
sociologists bring an attention to context, which involves situating phenomena within their social, cultural, and political environments, as well as considering historical and economic contexts
how does attention to context benefit sociologists in their study of crime and punishment?
this attention to context allows sociologists to create compelling narratives about crime and punishment, illustrating how laws are implemented in specific situations and how social processes and decision-making related to social control occur through social interaction, both within the criminal justice system and in civil society
what is the third tendency in sociological inquiry regarding crime and punishment?
the third tendency is a concern with social hierarchies of all kinds, including power, domination, coercion, and inequality
how do sociologists view the influence of social hierarchies on criminal justice systems?
sociologists are concerned with how various forms of power, whether based on race, ethnicity, gender, social class, or organisational structures, influence criminal justice systems and their operations
how is crime viewed in the context of social constructs?
crime is seen as a label applied to certain acts or omissions under specific circumstances, indicating that it is a product of culturally bounded social interaction
what does Edwin Schur suggest about the definition of crime?
Schur emphasises that crime is defined by criminal law and is variable in content. Therefore, explanations of crime that focus solely on individual motivation and behaviour cannot be complete
what did Sutherland’s research reveal about crime in American organisations?
Sutherland found that crime was widespread in politics, business, and the professions, with American organisations frequently violating legal standards and being characterised as “masters of exploitation” and “habitual criminals.”
how did Sutherland describe the acceptance of illegal practices in businesses?
Sutherland highlighted that illegal practices were often accepted as a way of “doing business,” suggesting that the context and environment in which a person worked could lead to future criminal acts
what were the 2 concepts of social exclusion by Sutherland?
- differential association
- differential social organisation
how is criminal behaviour described by Sutherland?
criminal behaviour is learned
in what context is criminal behaviour learned?
criminal behaviour is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication
where does the principal part of learning criminal behaviour occur?
the principal part of the learning of criminal behaviour occurs within intimate personal groups
what does the learning of criminal behaviour include?
The learning includes:
(a) techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very simple
(b) the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalisations, and attitudes
how is the specific direction of motives and drives learned?
it is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favourable or unfavourable
what leads a person to become delinquent according to Sutherland?
a person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favourable to violation of law over definitions unfavourable to violation of law
how may differential associations vary?
differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity
what does the process of learning criminal behaviour involve?
it involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning
why can’t criminal behaviour be fully explained by general needs and values?
while criminal behaviour is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those needs and values since non-criminal behaviour is also an expression of the same needs and values
what is a professional thief an example of?
a professional thief is a good example of a behaviour system that can be explained and defined as a unit
how do professional thieves engage in theft?
professional thieves engage in theft as a regular occupation
how long do professional thieves sustain their involvement in theft?
they sustain their involvement in this occupation over a large part of their lives
what do professional thieves use in their occupation?
they use a body of special knowledge and skills
how are these skills and knowledge developed?
they have been developed over time
how is this knowledge passed along?
it is passed along through traditions and personal associations
how would you describe the sophistication of a professional thief?
the professional thief is sophisticated
what is a key characteristic of a professional thief regarding their work?
regular work at theft
what level of skill do professional thieves possess?
expertise
what is meant by “consensus” in the context of professional thieves?
it refers to a shared understanding or agreement among thieves about practices and norms
how is the status of professional thieves described?
they have a certain status within their criminal community
what does “organisation” refer to in the context of professional thieves?
it refers to the structured way in which they operate, as noted by Sutherland et al
how do these characteristics help differentiate professional thieves?
these characteristics distinguish professional thieves from other thieves
what is “esprit de corps” in the context of professional thieves?
it refers to a sense of camaraderie and unity among professional thieves
how do professional thieves associate with one another compared to outsiders?
they associate with one another but do not associate with outsiders on the same basis
how do professional thieves choose their colleagues and partners?
they select their colleagues and partners very carefully
what is the significance of differential association among thieves?
it leads to the development of a common language or argot that is generally unknown to those outside the profession
what does “utelage” refer to?
guidance or protection provided to someone, often in the context of learning or development
who provided key insights into differential association in professional theft?
Sutherland
What did Sutherland observe about professional theft?
he noted that it reflected the processes that occur in all crime
how did Sutherland describe his observations in professional theft?
he said he seemed to see in magnified form the process that occurs in all crime
what is a critique regarding Sutherland’s explanation of criminal behaviour?
Sutherland never specifies the precise underlying learning mechanism involved in the process of becoming a criminal
what aspect of behaviour does Sutherland fail to acknowledge in his theory?
he does not acknowledge that people can be conditioned to act in certain ways, such as being rewarded for conforming behaviour
what is a significant criticism of differential association theory according to Matseuda?
the theory cannot be tested empirically
what does Social Learning Theory suggest about deviant behaviour?
deviant behaviour can be expected to the extent that it has been differentially reinforced over alternative behaviour
according to Akers, how is deviant behaviour perceived in certain situations?
it is defined as desirable or justified when the individual is in a situation discriminative for the behaviour
what role does reinforcement play in Social Learning Theory?
reinforcement influences whether an individual will engage in deviant behaviour versus conforming or other deviant behaviours
what does Akers argue about how behaviour is acquired and sustained?
behaviour, criminal or otherwise, is acquired and sustained through specific mechanisms
what is the first mechanism Akers identifies for acquiring behaviour?
direct behavioural conditioning
what is the second mechanism in Akers’ theory?
differential reinforcement
what is the third mechanism that Akers highlights for behaviour acquisition?
imitation or modelling of others behaviour
what do Akers et al. argue is the primary learning mechanism in social behaviour?
the primary learning mechanism in social behaviour is operant conditioning
besides operant conditioning, what other mechanism is important in Social Learning Theory?
imitation is also important in the acquisition of behaviours
what is crucial for the acquisition and persistence of behaviours, according to Akers?
differential reinforcement, which involves a balance of rewards or punishments attached to alternative behaviours, is crucial
how has the role of family life in contributing to law-breaking behaviour varied over time?
the role of family life as a contributing factor to law-breaking behaviour has changed throughout criminological history, with varying levels of focus and emphasis
what sociologically influenced studies of crime typically examine regarding family life?
these studies pay attention to factors such as family tension, ‘broken homes’, discipline patterns, neglect, and criminality within the family as indicators of juvenile delinquency
how has the focus on family in criminological research fluctuated?
the focus on family has been more or less fashionable at different times, with empirical evidence being utilised in various ways to explain crime
why is any debate about the family considered to be full of political interest?
debates about the family are embedded in ideas of what is considered ‘normal’ family life, often reflecting political agendas and societal norms
what does Stone’s (1995) historical analysis of divorce reveal about the ideal of the ‘perfect family’?
it reveals that the idealised notion of the ‘perfect family’ in earlier centuries does not reflect reality, as many families were often ‘broken’ by factors like death in childbirth and absent fathers
what was the focus of the public political debate in the 1990s regarding crime and law-breaking?
the debate centred on the role of the family in contributing to crime and law-breaking behaviour
what will the focus be in the examination of criminological evidence regarding the family?
the focus will be on the role of the family as a contributing factor in law-breaking behaviour, the political interpretations of that evidence, and the policy implications that arise
what will be particularly examined in the debate about the family’s role in crime?
the ideological assumptions underlying the images of family life that have become established in this debate will be closely examined
what was the belief regarding mothers and child-rearing in political and social policy?
mothers should stay at home to raise problem-free children
what economic reality did many families face regarding women’s work?
many families needed women to work (at least part-time) alongside men due to economic demands
how did the idea of maternal deprivation influence societal beliefs?
it fuelled ideological beliefs about women’s roles, contributing to the ‘Observer Wife’ syndrome
what movement emerged from the challenges to traditional family roles in the 1960s?
the feminist movement emerged, reshaping the image of family life and women’s roles
what was the impact of the feminist movement on views of women and children?
it brought women’s and children’s experiences and rights to the forefront of societal discussions
what other factors are relevant to child development besides the absent father?
changing material conditions and the quality of parenting are also relevant
what political trend emerged in the 1980s and 1990s regarding family?
there was a call for a return to ‘family values,’ focusing on the nuclear family
how did the political focus on family affect discussions about the absent father?
it centred on those at the bottom of the social hierarchy, linking them to the absent father debate
what argument about the absent father gained prominence in the late 1980s and early 1990s?
the argument focused on ‘fatherless families’ and links between rising illegitimacy and crime rates
what was a significant concern regarding the presence of a father with a criminal record?
it raised concerns about the potentially problematic effects on the child’s development
what is the connection between the underclass debate and crime in Britain?
the underclass debate focuses on whether a criminal underclass exists and how it relates to the production of criminal families
what historical distinction is made regarding the poor in the context of the underclass?
there is a distinction between the ‘deserving poor’ who are genuinely in need and the ‘non-deserving poor’ who are seen as responsible for their own poverty
how has breaking the law historically been associated with poverty?
historically, breaking the law has been linked to poverty, with Marx referring to the criminal underclass as the Lumpenproletariat
what derogatory term did Marx use to describe the criminal underclass?
Marx used the term ‘Social Scum’ to describe the Lumpenproletariat, reflecting a negative view of this group
how do societal attitudes towards poverty and crime intersect?
societal attitudes often stigmatise those in poverty, linking their economic status to criminal behaviour, while also acknowledging the socio-economic factors contributing to crime
who expressed shock about the riots in August 2011?
Kenneth Clarke, the Justice Secretary
what was Kenneth Clarke’s main concern regarding the rioters?
he was disturbed by the idea that the hardcore of rioters came from a feral underclass
how did Kenneth Clarke describe the feral underclass?
he described it as being cut off from the mainstream except for its materialistic aspects
what event is Kenneth Clarke referring to in his quote?
the riots that occurred in August 2011
what does the term “feral underclass” imply about the group Kenneth Clarke refers to?
it suggests a group that is wild, untamed, and disconnected from societal norms and values
who wrote about the “dishonest poor” in the Morning Chronicle in 1850?
Henry Mayhew
what distinguishes the “dishonest poor” from the civilised man according to Mayhew?
their repugnance to regular and continuous labor
what does Mayhew say about the “dishonest poor” regarding future planning?
they lack providence in laying up a store for the future
how does Mayhew describe the “dishonest poor’s” ability to perceive consequences?
they have an inability to perceive consequences that are even slightly removed from immediate apprehensions
what indulgences does Mayhew mention as characteristic of the “dishonest poor”?
a passion for stupefying herbs, roots, and intoxicating fermenting liquors
what issue does Auletta address regarding American cities?
the rise in crime, welfare dependency, drug statistics, and anti-social behaviour
what consensus exists among students of poverty regarding the underclass?
there is agreement that a distinct black and white underclass exists
how does the underclass generally feel about their place in society?
they feel excluded from society and often reject commonly accepted values
what types of deficiencies does the underclass suffer from according to Auletta?
behavioural deficiencies, as well as income deficiencies
how does the behaviour of the underclass appear to most Americans?
their behaviour seems aberrant to most Americans
what does Giddens describe as a class of individuals at the bottom of the class system?
aclass normally composed of people from ethnic minority backgrounds
in what year did Giddens provide his definition of this class?
1993
what is a key characteristic of this class according to Giddens?
they are situated right at the bottom of the class system
what demographic does Giddens specifically mention in relation to this class?
people from ethnic minority backgrounds.
how does Runciman define the term “underclass”?
it refers to members of British society whose roles keep them permanently at the economic level reliant on state benefits
what does Runciman emphasize the underclass does not represent?
a group of workers systematically disadvantaged in the labor market
according to Runciman, what economic situation do members of the underclass face?
they are unable to participate in the labor market at all
in what year did Runciman provide his definition of the underclass?
1990
what does Murray focus on to define the underclass?
three phenomena: illegitimacy, violent crime, and dropout from the labor force
in what year did Murray present his definition of the underclass?
1990
what does Murray suggest these phenomena are in the context of the underclass?
early warning signals in the United States
how many key phenomena does Murray identify in his definition of the underclass?
3 key phenomena
what do Bagguley and Mann suggest is rarely discussed in relation to the underclass?
the Wall Street underclass and their dependency on junk bonds
what behaviours do Bagguley and Mann mention that do not demoralise the middle classes?
divorces, white-collar crime, drug use, drinking, and casual sex
what phenomenon related to state welfare do Bagguley and Mann highlight?
the phenomenal benefits of state welfare dependency, such as tax relief on mortgage interest
in what year did Bagguley and Mann provide their commentary on the underclass?
1992
how does Bauman describe a consumer society?
as a society of credit cards, emphasising immediate consumption rather than saving
what does Bauman mean by a “now” society?
a society that prioritises instant gratification over delayed gratification.
according to Bauman, what does falling into the underclass represent in a free society?
a failure to make the right choices
in what year did Bauman discuss the relationship between consumer society and the underclass?
1998
what does Townsend mean by relative deprivation?
the absence or inadequacy of diets, amenities, standards, services, and activities that are common in society
according to Townsend, what defines membership in society?
the conditions of life that are typically available to individuals, such as resources and services
what happens to people who lack access to these essential conditions of life?
they are considered to be in poverty
in what year did Townsend provide his insights on relative deprivation and poverty?
1979
what does social exclusion refer to?
a shorthand term for the consequences faced by people or areas dealing with multiple linked problems
what are some of the linked problems associated with social exclusion?
unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, unfair discrimination, poor housing, high crime, bad health, and family breakdown
in what year did the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister provide their definition of social exclusion?
2004
how does social exclusion impact individuals and communities?
it combines various challenges that hinder access to opportunities and resources, affecting overall quality of life
what does the dimension of consumption refer to in social exclusion?
it relates to individuals’ access to goods and services, impacting their quality of life and ability to participate fully in society
how does production play a role in social exclusion?
it involves the opportunities for individuals to engage in work or generate income, which can affect their economic stability and social status
what is meant by political engagement in the context of social exclusion?
it refers to individuals’ ability to participate in political processes, such as voting and advocacy, which can influence their representation and rights
why is social interaction a crucial dimension of social exclusion?
it encompasses the relationships and networks individuals have, which are essential for support, community involvement, and overall well-being
what does “The Binary” refer to in the context of social exclusion?
it highlights the division between those who are included in society and those who are excluded, creating a stark contrast that affects social dynamics
how is “Moral Exclusion” defined in social exclusion discourse?
it describes the process by which certain groups are deemed unworthy of moral consideration, leading to their exclusion from societal benefits and protections
what is meant by “Spatial Exclusion”?
this concept refers to the geographical aspects of exclusion, where certain areas are marginalised and lack access to resources, services, and opportunities
what does “Dysfunctional Underclass” signify?
it points to a segment of society that is trapped in cycles of poverty and disadvantage, often characterised by social dysfunction and lack of upward mobility
how does “Work and Redemption” relate to social exclusion?
this idea emphasises the belief that employment can serve as a pathway to reintegration and improvement in social status for those who are excluded
what is a key danger of the concept of social exclusion?
it creates false binaries that oversimplify complex social issues by dividing people into included and excluded categories
what does Young mean by stating that problems occur on both sides of the line?
it highlights that both marginalised groups and the mainstream majority face significant challenges, even if they manifest differently
why is the “normality” of the majority considered problematic?
it suggests a standard that is often rooted in privilege and power dynamics, ignoring the struggles and systemic issues faced by those within the majority
how can focusing solely on social exclusion be limiting?
it can obscure the nuanced struggles of the majority and prevent a comprehensive understanding of the interconnectedness of societal challenges
what does Young mean by “bulimic society”?
a bulimic society is one where cultural inclusion happens alongside systematic structural exclusion, indicating a simultaneous presence of both inclusion and exclusion
how does cultural inclusion manifest in a bulimic society?
cultural inclusion refers to the widespread acceptance and visibility of diverse groups and ideas within society
what is meant by “systematic structural exclusion”?
systematic structural exclusion refers to the ongoing and institutionalised barriers that prevent certain groups from fully participating in society, despite cultural inclusion
why is the concept of a bulimic society significant in understanding social dynamics?
it emphasises the complexity of social issues, showing that inclusion does not equate to equality and that significant disparities can still exist
how is the “underclass” characterised in society?
the underclass is a heterogeneous group that is poorly defined and often becomes a target for societal resentment
what role does mass media play in shaping perceptions of the underclass?
mass media re-constitutes the underclass into a clear-cut and homogeneous group, promoting stereotypes that focus public attention and hostility
what are some common stereotypes associated with the underclass?
stereotypes include “the undeserving poor,” “the single mother,” and “the welfare scrounger.”
what is the process of essentialising, and how does it relate to the underclass?
essentialising involves reducing complex identities to simplistic stereotypes, which is prevalent due to a crisis of identity and contributes to negative images of the underclass
how do negative stereotypes of the underclass affect social perceptions?
they create a binary opposition between the “virtuous” included and the “undeserving” excluded, reinforcing societal divisions and hostility
