green criminology Flashcards
1
Q
what is green criminology?
A
branch of criminology that involves the study of harms and crimes against the environment broadly conceived, including the study of environmental law and policy, the study of corporate crimes against the environment, and environmental justice from a criminological perspective
2
Q
what is green crime?
A
crimes committed against the environment, green crime is the focus of green criminologists
3
Q
what key areas are considered in green criminology?
A
green criminology examines offences (crimes against the environment), offenders (who commits these crimes and why), victims (who suffers from environmental damage), and responses (policing, punishment, and crime prevention)
4
Q
what theoretical aspects does green criminology explore?
A
green criminology investigates the social, economic, and political conditions that lead to environmental crimes, as well as the philosophical question of which types of harms should be considered crimes
5
Q
how does globalisation relate to green crime?
A
globalisation is seen as an important factor in green crime, with some environmental crimes being local (like fly-tipping) while others, such as pollution, cross national boundaries
6
Q
what concept is linked to Ulrich Beck’s work on global risk society?
A
Ulrich Beck’s modernist work discusses issues like global warming and the risks they pose to the entire world, emphasising the interconnectedness of environmental crimes across borders
7
Q
what is primary green crime?
A
offences that are directly committed against or cause harm to the environment: Four categories of crime: air pollution, crimes of deforestation, crimes of species decline and animal rights and water pollution
8
Q
what is secondary green crime?
A
further offences arising from exchange rules relating to the environment. The flouting of rules relating to environmental disasters- include state violence against oppositional groups – such as Greenpeace and XR and Hazardous waste dumping – including the role of organised crime
9
Q
why is green criminology often considered interdisciplinary?
A
green criminology is seen as interdisciplinary because it draws from various fields but lacks a unique theory or specific theoretical approach, resulting in a diverse but unfocused body of literature
10
Q
what is the nature of much of the green criminological literature?
A
much of the green criminological literature is qualitative and descriptive, and it generally does not provide a unique or unified theory
11
Q
what criticism is made about the focus of traditional criminology?
A
traditional criminology is criticised for being narrowly focused only on matters deemed ‘criminal,’ which some scholars argue limits the scope of criminological study
12
Q
what alternative focus do some scholars advocate for in criminology?
A
some scholars advocate for adopting a broader notion of ‘harm’ as the focus of criminological attention, rather than restricting it to just criminal acts
13
Q
what is a central debate in green criminology?
A
a central discussion in green criminology is whether the focus should be on environmental harm rather than just environmental crime
14
Q
how should green crimes be viewed in relation to mainstream criminal justice?
A
there is a debate on whether green “crimes” should be addressed by mainstream criminal justice agencies like the police or if they should be considered outside of the traditional criminal justice framework
15
Q
what implications does the focus on environmental harm have for criminology?
A
focusing on environmental harm could broaden the scope of criminology, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of the impacts of environmental issues beyond just legal definitions of crime
16
Q
how is the concept of ‘crime’ defined?
A
the concept of ‘crime’ is often seen as a legal construction that varies historically, geographically, and based on political decisions
17
Q
what challenges arise from the legal construction of crime?
A
the definition of ‘crime’ can differ according to time, place, and political decision-making, which limits its ability to address the range of human activities leading to suffering or environmental harm
18
Q
who are Paddy and Steve Tombs, and what is their contribution to criminology?
A
Paddy Hillyard and Steve Tombs have influenced critical criminology by examining the notion of ‘social harm’ and suggesting it offers a broader understanding of the causes of human suffering and environmental harm compared to traditional crime studies
19
Q
what longstanding challenge does criminology face regarding “crime” and “harm”?
A
criminology must decide whether to focus solely on legally defined crimes or also study activities within lawful practice that have harmful consequences
20
Q
what might merit legal proscription and response in criminology?
A
activities that, while lawful, have harmful consequences that can be evidenced and recognised as problematic by some
21
Q
who are the authors that discuss the distinction between “crime” and “harm”?
A
South, Short, and Higgins (2013) highlight the challenge in criminology regarding the study of crime versus harm
22
Q
what is anthropocentric harm?
A
a perspective that emphasises the superiority of humans over all living and non-living entities and therefore assumes that the environment is there to serve human needs. It considers harm to the environment from the perspective of humanity. Pollution is a problem because it damages human water supply or causes diseases that are expensive to overcome; climate change is a problem because of its impact on people and the economic cost of dealing with it
23
Q
what is ecocentric harm?
A
sees all species and the rest of the natural world as being involved in a complex interdependent system, and consequently viewing environmental sustainability as being as important as human survival and the survival of other species. Does not differentiate between humans and the rest of the ecosystem; see harm to any aspect of the environment damaging it all. Therefore, crimes such as animal cruelty or habitat destruction are green crimes, whether or not there is any specific human cost
24
Q
what is biocentrism harm?
A
in which it is assumed that all living creatures are of equal worth (humans are just another species) and that therefore humans should be concerned with the ways in which environmental resources are utilised and affect all species
25
what are 4 examples of environmental harm?
1. climate change
2. abuse and harm to animals
3. threats to biodiversity
4. pollution or toxic waste
26
is wildlife crime a new phenomenon?
no
27
how did poaching affect wildlife populations throughout most of modern human history?
poaching and other forms of wildlife crime did not have significant deleterious effects on wildlife populations during that time
28
why was the impact of wildlife crime limited in the past?
animals were taken for subsistence or local commercial trade in relatively small numbers, which constrained the impact of these activities by geography
29
what is the international community beginning to acknowledge about wildlife crime?
the international community is recognising the magnitude and significance of wildlife crime due to its detrimental effects on biodiversity, economies, security, and communities reliant on wildlife for livelihoods
30
what are the combined effects of wildlife crime and habitat loss?
toether, wildlife crime and habitat loss are responsible for a significant decline in entire populations of animals, many of which are already endangered
31
what do some experts argue regarding the current state of species extinction?
some experts argue that the earth is facing its sixth mass extinction, attributing this to human-based activity that causes an estimated loss of 17,000 to 100,000 species annually
32
what impact has media attention had on wildlife crime?
the increased attention that wildlife crime incidents have received from media organisations and conservationist researchers has spurred inter-disciplinary research on the topic
33
how have criminologists contributed to the study of wildlife crime?
criminologists have increasingly been studying wildlife crime, to the extent that it is now considered a subfield of research within the greater discipline
34
what is the estimated value of the illegal wildlife trade?
the illegal wildlife trade, excluding illegal timber trade and IUU fishing, has an estimated value between US$7.8 billion (Haken 2011) and US$20 billion per annum
35
what are the estimated values of the illegal timber trade and IUU fishing?
the illegal timber trade is estimated to be valued at US$7 billion, while illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing is estimated to be valued at upwards of US$23 billion
36
how does the profit from wildlife, timber, and fish trafficking compare to other illegal trades?
the illicit trade in wildlife, timber, and fish is surpassed in profits only by the trafficking of drugs, guns, and humans, making it one of the most profitable global illegal trades
37
what has been the general scientific consensus on global warming?
concern about global warming has been expressed for many years by scientists from various disciplines, and it is now accepted by a majority of people as a serious and urgent issue
38
how have contrarians affected the perception of climate change?
despite systematic denial and downplaying of climate change by contrarians, many of whom have influential connections, awareness of the issue has grown significantly
39
what contributes to the growing acceptance of climate change as a serious issue?
climate and weather events are increasingly affecting people worldwide, making the impacts of climate change more relatable and urgent for everyone
40
what is a major barrier to global action on climate change?
a significant barrier is the lack of concentrated global action, largely influenced by the actions of large transnational corporations, particularly in the 'old energy' sectors like coal mining
41
how do transnational corporations compare to nation states in terms of power?
top corporations often possess economic power that surpasses that of many nation states, controlling vast resources such as land, water, and food
42
in what ways do these corporations influence global climate efforts?
these transnational corporations use their collective power to influence global efforts aimed at addressing climate change, often working to protect their interests and activities
43
what is one way that opponents of climate change action challenge the science?
they often challenge the science behind climate change, questioning the validity of scientific findings and promoting skepticism
44
how do business-funded NGOs impact environmental efforts?
they create business-funded environmental NGOs that can promote agendas aligned with corporate interests, potentially undermining genuine environmental effort
45
what economic argument is frequently emphasised against tackling climate change?
opponents often emphasis the economic cost of addressing climate change, arguing that it would negatively impact businesses and economies
46
what diplomatic strategy is used to create stalemates in international negotiations?
double-edged diplomacy is employed to create stalemates, preventing meaningful progress in international climate negotiations
47
how does domestic politics play a role in stalling international progress on climate change?
particularly in the US, domestic politics are leveraged to stall international progress, with policymakers prioritising short-term interests over long-term solutions
48
in what way do corporations directly influence climate change negotiations?
corporations engage in direct lobbying to influence climate change negotiations, pushing for outcomes that favour their business interests
49
what are key drivers of continuous conflict related to social inequality?
social inequality and environmental injustice, particularly affecting marginalised populations facing food shortages and lack of clean water
50
who suffers the most from food shortages and climate-induced hardships?
the dispossessed and marginalised groups, including women, people of colour, and vulnerable populations
51
how do the impacts of environmental injustice differ among genders?
women typically suffer more than men during crises, facing greater challenges in accessing resources and support
52
which groups are more affected by environmental hardships beyond gender?
people of colour, particularly indigenous and migrant communities, as well as the young, elderly, infirm, and disabled individuals of all ages
53
what is the relationship between social inequality and environmental issues?
social inequality exacerbates environmental issues, leading to increased conflict as marginalised groups fight for their rights and resources
54
what is the first trend where climate change leads to social conflict?
conflicts over environmental resources, where competition for dwindling resources can lead to disputes
55
what does the second trend, "conflicts linked to global warming," refer to?
it refers to conflicts that arise directly from the impacts of global warming, such as extreme weather events and rising sea levels
56
what is meant by "conflict over differential exploitation of resources"?
this trend highlights disputes arising from unequal access and exploitation of resources, often affecting marginalised communities more than others
57
what does "conflicts over transference of harm" entail?
it involves conflicts that emerge when the negative impacts of climate change are disproportionately transferred to vulnerable populations, often without accountability
58
what is one crime that may become more prevalent due to climate-related events?
looting and black-marketeering in relation to foodstuffs, as people may resort to illegal means to secure food during shortages
59
what kind of illegal activities are associated with the depletion of marine resources?
illegal fishing, which can threaten fish populations and disrupt ecosystems
60
what is a serious crime linked to climate-induced migration?
trafficking in humans, as vulnerable populations may be exploited during their displacement
61
what type of fraud is connected to carbon emissions?
carbon emission trading fraud, where individuals or companies manipulate carbon credit markets for profit
62
what motivates criminologists to study animal and plant life?
concerns for species justice and interest in conventional environmental crimes, such as illegal fishing
63
who are 2 researchers that have contributed to the study of environmental crimes?
1. Walters
2. Boekhout van Solinge
64
how does green criminology view environmental degradation?
it examines the interconnectedness of human actions and ecological systems, advocating for justice for all living beings
65
what is the key message regarding biodiversity and ecosystem resilience?
the greater the number of species, the greater the resilience of the system as a whole to potential catastrophe
66
what percentage of the world's plants are at risk of extinction?
over 22%
67
what is a major cause of plant extinction?
loss of habitats due to the conversion of natural areas for agricultural use, including food and biofuel production
68
why is protecting biodiversity important?
It ensures ecosystem resilience and maintains the health and functionality of the environment
69
what is CITES?
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, designed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival
70
how does CITES regulate international trade?
by subjecting international trade in specimens of listed species to certain controls based on their classification in the three Appendices of the convention
71
how many species of animals and plants are covered by CITES?
approximately 5,000 species of animals and 28,000 species of plants
72
why is CITES important in criminology?
it helps combat illegal wildlife trade, which is a significant environmental crime affecting biodiversity and ecosystem health
73
what does a green criminological approach to biodiversity focus on?
it is not solely concerned with legality, recognising that many damaging environmental activities can be legal or vary in criminalisation across countries
74
how does this approach differ from traditional conservation efforts?
it does not focus exclusively on conservation; instead, it emphasises the quality of life for species and individual animals
75
what concept is expressed within the green criminological approach regarding animals?
the concept of species justice, which considers the welfare of both species-level and individual animals
76
who proposed the concept of species justice in this context?
White in 2013
77
what is pollution?
pollution refers to the contamination of soil, water, or the atmosphere by the discharge of harmful substances that adversely affect the environment
78
what activities contribute to pollution?
a range of activities collectively contributes to the pollution of the planet
79
according to Deville and Harding (1997), what are the 3 main activities that produce environmental threats?
1. obtaining resources
2. transforming or using these reosources
3. disposing of usable by-products
80
why is understanding these activities important?
recognising these activities helps in addressing the sources of pollution and implementing effective environmental protection strategies
81
what is the relationship between global capitalism and pollution?
global capitalism is inherently polluting due to the scale and reach of transnational chains of production and consumption
82
are all industries equally polluting?
no, some industries are more 'dirty' than others, contributing significantly to environmental pollution
83
how many corporations account for a large portion of carbon dioxide emissions?
just 122 corporations account for 80% of all carbon dioxide emissions
84
which five private global oil corporations contribute to world carbon emissions?
1. Exxon Mobil
2. BP Amoco
3. Shell
4. Chevron
5. Texaco
85
what types of environments are affected by ecological destruction?
ecological destruction affects the air, land, and also the planet's waters, including inland rivers, oceans, and seas
86
what is a major concern in international waters?
pollution from plastics is a major concern in international waters
87
what are PBTs in relation to plastic pollution?
PBTs are persistent bio-accumulating and toxic compounds that can be released from plastic debris in the oceans
88
what are microplastics?
microplastics are plastics that are smaller than 5 millimeters in diameter and are a significant part of plastic pollution in the oceans
89
how does the environmental harm from plastics in the oceans vary?
the environmental harm varies according to the size and composition of the plastic material
90
what are some threats to biodiversity caused by plastic pollution?
threats to biodiversity include physical damage through ingestion and entanglement in plastic and other debris
91
who is most affected by the social and environmental harm caused by hazardous waste transfers?
the poor and vulnerable populations are paying the price for both legal and illegal transfers of hazardous waste
92
what are the consequences of toxic materials in specific environments?
toxic materials can permeate specific areas, leading to human and animal health suffering and becoming embedded in local landscapes
93
what is green victimology?
green victimology explores who suffers as a result of environmental crimes and emphasises that we are all potential victims
94
what new territory does green victimology open up?
it opens up new territory in victimology by asking who the victims of environmental crimes are
95
what distinction does Williams (2009) make in victimology?
Williams argues it's important to distinguish between 'casualties' affected by natural disasters and those affected by deliberate or reckless human actions involved in criminal victimisation
96
who are considered 'casualties' in the context of environmental crimes?
'Casualties' are individuals affected by natural disasters, as opposed to those impacted by human-induced environmental crimes
97
what does ecocide refer to?
ecocide describes attempts to criminalise human activities that cause extensive damage to, destruction, or loss of ecosystems
98
what are the impacts of ecocide on ecosystems?
Aecocide reduces the health and well-being of species within these ecosystems, including humans
99
why is ecocide significant in environmental discussions?
it highlights the need for accountability for actions that lead to severe ecological harm and emphasises the interconnectedness of human and environmental health
100
hoAw does ecocide relate to victimology?
ecocide can be seen as a form of victimisation, as it affects not only the environment but also the health and well-being of all species, including human populations
101
what causes ecocide?
Aecocide can be caused by human agency or other natural causes
102
what is the effect of ecocide on inhabitants?
it severely diminishes the peaceful enjoyment of the territory by its inhabitants
103
why is the concept of ecocide important?
it highlights the need for accountability for actions that cause significant ecological harm and affect human well-being
104
what is the shared vision of Extinction Rebellion?
creating a world that is fit for generations to come
105
what is the mission of Extinction Rebellion regarding population mobilisation?
mobilising 3.5% of the population to achieve system change
106
what type of culture does Extinction Rebellion aim to create?
a regenerative culture that is healthy, resilient, and adaptable
107
how does Extinction Rebellion approach personal growth and action?
by openly challenging themselves and the toxic system, leaving comfort zones to take action for change
108
what is the cycle of learning emphasised by Extinction Rebellion?
a cycle of action, reflection, learning, and planning for more action
109
how does Extinction Rebellion promote inclusivity?
by welcoming everyone and actively creating safer and more accessible spaces
110
what is the stance of Extinction Rebellion on power dynamics?
they actively mitigate for power by breaking down hierarchies for more equitable participation
111
what is the approach of Extinction Rebellion towards blame and shame?
they avoid blaming and shaming individuals, recognising that no one is solely to blame in a toxic system
112
what is the strategy of Extinction Rebellion in their activism?
they are a non-violent network using non-violent strategy and tactics as the most effective way to bring about change
113
what is the organisational structure of Extinction Rebellion?
they are based on autonomy and decentralisation, collectively creating the structures needed to challenge power
114
what defines climate refugees?
climate refugees are people who are forced to leave their homes due to sudden or long-term changes to their local environment that threaten their welfare or livelihood
115
what are some environmental changes that can create climate refugees?
increased drought, sea level rise, and disruption of seasonal weather patterns (like monsoons)
116
where might climate refugees migrate?
they may choose to flee to another country or migrate internally within their own country
117
when did significant discussions about climate change refugees begin?
the first significant discussions started in the 1990s
118
who primarily undertook the early discussions on climate change-related migration?
the discussions were mostly undertaken by scientists interested in climate change, rather than those focused on legal or normative aspects of refugees and forced migration
119
who are environmental migrants?
environmental migrants are persons or groups who are compelled to leave their homes due to sudden or progressive changes in the environment that negatively impact their lives or living conditions
120
what reasons might compel environmental migrants to leave their homes?
compelling reasons include sudden or progressive environmental changes that adversely affect their lives or living conditions
121
do environmental migrants leave their homes temporarily or permanently?
environmental migrants may leave their homes either temporarily or permanently
122
where do environmental migrants move?
they may move either within their country or abroad
123
what is a significant challenge for international policymakers regarding climate refugees?
climate refugees pose unique challenges compared to those displaced by persecution, as recognised by the 1951 UN Refugee Convention
124
why is it difficult to identify some climate refugees?
many people are forced to move due to slow-onset changes like sea level rise and desertification, making it hard to classify them as climate refugees
125
what are researchers trying to understand about climate change and migration?
researchers are working to understand how climate change interacts with other factors, such as national security and local economic trends, that might prompt a family to move
126
what social trends have complicated the situation for climate refugees in recent years?
the wave of nationalism and anti-immigrant sentiment across Europe and the U.S. has made it challenging for the U.N. to enforce existing refugee protocols
127
what did Hall say about the prospects for international policy on climate change refugees?
Hall stated, "To get any progressive international policy, much less hard law, is almost impossible in today's climate," indicating that a binding convention on displaced people due to climate change is unlikely
128
wow many 'environmental refugees' are estimated to exist by the middle of this century?
200 million
129
what percentage increase in asylum applications to the European Union is projected by 2100?
28%
130
what is the need for consideration regarding environmental refugees and global responsibilities?
to address their rights and the duties of the global community
131
is there an international agreement on who qualifies as a climate refugee?
no
132
what were diplomats discussing in 2018 regarding displaced individuals?
new guidelines for how countries should deal with the surge in displaced people
133
do 'climate refugees' currently have a formal definition, recognition, or protection under international law?
no
134
where is Fairbourne located?
Fairbourne is a Welsh seaside village on the coast of Barmouth Bay in the Arthog community, Gwynedd
135
Question: What amenities does Fairbourne offer?
Fairbourne has around 410 homes, a shop, deli, chip shop, butchers, campsite, and a popular model railway.
136
why did many retired couples move to Fairbourne?
they were inspired by memories of childhood holidays in North Wales and attracted by the landscape, uncrowded beaches, and relatively affordable house prices
137
what did the 2014 Shoreline Management Plan estimate regarding flood defences in Fairbourne?
it estimated that it would not be sustainable to maintain flood defences in the village after about 40 years due to rising sea levels
138
what is the predicted timeline for Fairbourne becoming unsustainable to defend against flooding?
the best estimate is that this point will occur between 2052 and 2062, with uncertainty ranging from 2042 to 2072
139
what is Gwynedd Council's working assumption for sea level rise over the next 100 years?
Gwynedd Council is working on the basis of a one-meter sea level rise
140
what is the worst-case scenario for global sea level rise by 2100 according to recent studies?
the worst-case scenario suggests that global sea levels could rise by two meters, putting 187 million people at risk
141
what has been the response to the threat of flooding in Fairbourne?
Fairbourne has been under a 'managed retreat' due to the risks associated with rising sea levels
142
what is managed retreat?
managed retreat is the purposeful and coordinated movement of people and buildings away from risks, such as those posed by rising sea levels
143
what types of hazards can managed retreat respond to?
managed retreat can respond to various hazards, including floods, wildfires, and droughts
144
why is managed retreat being considered in Fairbourne?
managed retreat is being considered in Fairbourne due to the threat of rising sea levels and the associated risks to the community
145
how did local residents initially react to the managed retreat policy?
local residents strongly opposed the managed retreat policy, fearing for their homes and the future of their community
146
what happened to the opposition as time went on?
the opposition to managed retreat diminished as some of the most concerned households moved away, but the sentiment of discontent remained among those who stayed
147
what does the ongoing sentiment among remaining residents indicate?
the ongoing sentiment among remaining residents indicates lingering concerns about the future of Fairbourne and the impact of managed retreat on their community
148
what does South (2014) argue regarding crimes against the environment?
South argues that the seriousness of crimes against the environment has not received full acknowledgment as a field of study in criminology, despite being a matter of global significance
149
what collaboration did South suggest to address environmental crimes?
South suggested possible collaboration with international law-enforcement bodies concerned with environmental harms and crimes
150
what areas should criminology engage with according to South?
criminology should engage with the articulation of environmental and human rights, as well as the work of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)
151
what is an example of environmental advocacy relevant to criminology?
Environmental Investigation Agency, Human Rights Watch, and the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW)
152
what link did Brisman and South (2013a) suggest criminology should be interested in?
they suggested that criminology should be interested in the link between political protest to preserve human rights today and the action required to preserve the environmental rights of future generations
153
what other authors contributed to the discussion on environmental rights and criminology?
other contributors include Clark (2009) and South and Brisman
154
what is the central assumption of capitalism according to George Monbiot?
the central assumption is that individuals are entitled to as great a share of the world’s resources as their money can buy.
155
what can people purchase under this assumption of capitalism?
people can purchase land, atmospheric space, minerals, meat, and fish, regardless of who might be deprived.
156
what extremes can individuals reach in terms of ownership according to Monbiot?
individuals can own entire mountain ranges and fertile plains if they can afford them
157
what does Monbiot say about the consumption of fuel?
he states that individuals can burn as much fuel as they like, as every pound or dollar secures a certain right over the world’s natural wealth
158
wat implication does Monbiot suggest about wealth and natural resources?
he implies that wealth allows individuals to exploit natural resources without consideration for the deprivation of others
