labelling and control theories Flashcards
what is labelling theory in criminology?
labelling theory is a collection of perspectives rather than a single theory, suggesting that societal labels can influence individual behaviour and identity
what happens when someone is labeled as a criminal or deviant?
they may internalise that label, leading to further deviant behaviour and potentially becoming a self-fulfilling prophecy
what is a self-fulfilling prophecy in the context of labelling theory?
it’s the idea that if someone is labeled negatively, they may begin to act in ways that conform to that label, even if it wasn’t their original identity
how does labelling theory relate to societal reactions?
the theory emphasises that societal reactions and the stigma attached to labels can significantly impact an individual’s behaviour and identity
how is labelling theory similar to techniques of neutralisation?
both concepts help explain the complexities of crime and deviance, with labelling theory focusing on the impact of labels and techniques of neutralisation explaining how individuals rationalise their deviant behaviour
what do labelling perspectives suggest about formal reactions to crime?
they suggest that formal reactions can become a stepping-stone in the development of a criminal career and escalate antisocial behaviours
who are 3 key theorists associated with labelling perspectives?
- Becker
- Lemert
- Tannennbaum
what is the foundation of labelling perspectives built upon?
symbolic interactionism, as proposed by Blumer
what does symbolic interactionism posit?
that social meaning is generated through the repeated use of social actions, objects, and language
how do definitions ‘cause’ deviance?
they generate symbolic processes that lead individuals to be set aside as negatively categorised and undergo a transformation of status
what transformation can occur due to labelling?
individuals may be viewed as inferior or morally unfit, which can entrench them in a deviant identity
how is the definition of ‘deviant’ behaviour constructed under labelling perspectives?
it is socially constructed through a process of repeated interactions
who gives meaning to labels in the labelling perspective?
meaning is given to labels by both society and individuals themselves
what contributes to the internalisation of labels?
the repeat application and internalisation of these labels contribute to how individuals perceive themselves
what role do repeated interactions play in labelling perspectives?
they are essential in constructing the social meaning of deviant behaviour
what does the labelling perspective suggest about deviance?
it postulates that deviance is in the eyes of the beholders and that labelling someone as deviant can lead to negative consequences, such as giving a ‘dog a bad name
what is the central idea of labelling theory?
the central idea is that deviance is created by the social audience, its criteria of judgment, and the consequences of its judgment, which are the primary causes of deviance
how do theorists in labelling theory view deviance and deviants?
they require criminologists to think of deviance and deviants as social constructions that arise from a process of interaction.
what did this way of thinking lead to in terms of theory and analysis?
it led to the development of two related but separate areas of theory and analysis
what does the first area of labelling perspective explore?
it explores the importance of social reactions in shaping the behaviour of those who are labelled as deviant
what emphasis came with the focus on social reactions in labelling theory?
there was an emphasis on analytic methods that call for the discovery of meaning through qualitative methods
what does the second area of labelling theory address?
it addresses questions regarding the development of definitions of behaviours as deviant or criminal
what mechanisms are examined in relation to formal social control agencies?
it examines how agencies like the police decide who to process as criminal and thus label
which theoretical framework is associated with the labelling perspective?
symbolic interactionism
how does class relate to labelling perspectives?
class can never fully be removed from labelling perspectives, indicating that social class plays a significant role in the labelling process
what is the first point from Chambliss’ writing regarding criminal acts?
acts are considered criminal because it is in the interests of the ruling class to define them as such
what does the second point state about individuals labelled as criminal?
persons are labelled criminal because defining them in this way serves the interests of the ruling class
what does the third point explain about the labelling of different social classes?
the lower classes are labelled criminal while the bourgeoisie is not, due to the bourgeoisie’s control of the means of production, which gives them control over the State and law enforcement
what was the focus of Chambliss’ ethnographic study at ‘Hannibal High’?
Chambliss observed two groups of students to demonstrate how social class and societal labelling led to differing definitions of delinquency
how did the two groups of students differ in community perception despite similar behaviours?
each group engaged in the same amount of delinquency but received different reactions; one group was seen as normal teenagers while the other was labelled as delinquent
who are the ‘Saints’ in Chambliss’ study?
the ‘Saints’ are eight teenagers who engaged in the same delinquent behaviour as the ‘Roughnecks’ but came from middle-class homes, allowing them to evade the deviant label
who are the ‘Roughnecks’ and how were they perceived by the community?
the ‘Roughnecks’ are six teenagers from lower-class households who were viewed by the community as troublemakers
what types of delinquent activities did the ‘Saints’ engage in during Chambliss’ observation?
the ‘Saints’ participated in truancy, underage drinking, and other delinquencies nearly every day
were the delinquencies of the ‘Saints’ limited to harmless activities?
no, the delinquencies included dangerous acts, such as removing barricades around road construction sites and waiting for motorists to crash
what did Chambliss note about the consequences of the ‘Saints’ activities?
Chambliss found it surprising that no one was seriously injured as a result of the ‘Saints’ activities
how did the police respond to the ‘Saints’ delinquent behaviour?
the ‘Saints’ were stopped and confronted by police officers on several occasions, but they were not deterred from their activities
how did the labelling of the ‘Saints’ and ‘Roughnecks’ affect their futures?
the labelling shaped their futures while they were still in school, influencing perceptions and opportunities
what role did grades play in the treatment of the ‘Saints’ and ‘Roughnecks’?
the ‘Saints’ generally had higher grades, leading to a more favourable perception, while the ‘Roughnecks’ struggled academically, resulting in negative labels
how did visibility impact the treatment of the two groups?
the ‘Saints’ engaged in delinquent activities in less visible areas, avoiding detection, whereas the ‘Roughnecks’ were more visible in their misbehaviours, attracting scrutiny
what was the significance of demeanour in the treatment of the ‘Saints’ and ‘Roughnecks’?
the ‘Saints’ appeared more respectful and polite, gaining sympathy, while the ‘Roughnecks’ had a more aggressive demeanour, leading to harsher treatment
who is associated with an early type of labelling perspective in 1938?
Frank Tannenbaum
what did Tannenbaum observe about delinquency?
he was struck by the normalcy of much delinquency among adolescents
how did Tannenbaum view juvenile delinquency?
he noted that many forms of delinquency are part of adolescent street life, contributing to play, adventure, and excitement
what is the issue with how delinquent activities are perceived?
while some view these activities nostalgically as part of youth, others see them as a nuisance or threat, which can lead to police involvement
what does Tannenbaum suggest about police intervention?
police intervention can change how individuals and their behaviours are perceived by others and by themselves
how does Tannenbaum describe the shift in perception following police intervention?
there is a shift from defining specific acts as evil to a broader definition of the individual involved
why is the first contact with authorities significant, according to Tannenbaum?
it can initiate a ‘dramatisation of evil’ that separates the individual from peers and leads to specialised treatment
what concern does Tannenbaum express regarding the ‘dramatisation of evil’?
he worries that this process can contribute more to creating a criminal identity than any other experience, leading individuals to see themselves as delinquents
how does Tannenbaum view legal sanctions associated with police and courts?
he asserts that they create more problems than they solve, turning the conventional idea of deterrence on its head
what solution does Tannenbaum propose regarding the dramatisation of evil?
he argues that “The way out is through a refusal to dramatize the evil. The less said about it the better”
what does Tannenbaum suggest about the approach to deviance?
he suggests that the less said and done regarding deviant behaviour, the better
what concepts does Tannenbaum develop in relation to deviance?
he develops the concepts of primary deviance and secondary deviance
what is primary deviance according to Lemert?
primary deviance refers to the initial acts of deviance or criminality committed by an individual
who does Lemert believe commits acts of primary deviance?
Lemert believes that almost everyone commits acts of primary deviance
what are some reasons individuals might engage in primary deviance?
reasons include peer pressure and lack of social control
how are minor deviant behaviours treated in society, according to Lemert?
for most people, minor deviant behaviors are routinely ignored or tolerated as long as they occur irregularly and are not part of a deviant role in society
what is secondary deviance?
secondary deviance occurs when a person begins to employ their deviant behaviour or role as a means of defence, attack, or adjustment to the problems created by societal reactions
how does Schur (1951) define secondary deviance?
Schur describes it as a behaviour that evolves to become a means of defence, attack, or adaptation to the problems created by real or anticipated disapproving, degrading, or isolating reactions from others
what triggers the transition from primary to secondary deviance?
the transition occurs due to the societal reaction to an individual’s initial deviant behaviour, leading them to identify with and adopt their deviant role more fully
what is a good example of secondary deviance?
when an offender adopts a criminal identity after their initial deviant behaviour
what triggers the movement from primary deviance to secondary deviance?
it is triggered by a sequence of interactions that begins with an act of primary deviance, leading to social reactions
what happens after the initial act of primary deviance?
the act causes a social reaction, which may lead to further acts of deviance.
what is the result of continued acts of deviance and social reactions?
if this cycle continues, the individual may embrace a deviant role, leading to secondary deviance
What does Becker (1963) argue about deviance?
Becker argues that deviance is not a quality of any particular person, population, or behaviour
how does Becker define the nature of deviance?
he states that deviance is an imposition of the values of the dominant members of society on the subordinate members
what does Becker suggest about deviant careerists?
he suggests that deviant careerists progress into a deviant status only when their deviant behaviour has been detected
what is the implication of undetected deviant behaviour according to Becker?
deviant behaviour that has not been detected cannot be labeled as deviant
what happens once deviant behaviour has been detected according to Becker?
once detected, the perpetrator is labeled as deviant
how does the deviant label affect the individual’s life?
the deviant label acts as a master status, defining the deviant’s life in every way, regardless of any conventional behaviour they may continue to engage in
what do deviants do to cope with the imposition of a deviant master status?
to survive, deviants band together in deviant subcultures
what is the purpose of deviant subcultures according to Becker?
they help each other avoid the negative ramifications of the deviant label that they all share
what is a significant aspect of Becker’s (1963) contribution to labelling theory?
his discussion of the development of deviant careers
what are the three phases through which deviant or criminal careers emerge, according to Becker?
- an act of initial rule-breaking occurs, whether intentional or not
- being caught and publicly labeled as deviant
what are the consequences of being labeled deviant?
it has important consequences for an individual’s public identity, social interaction, and self-identity
how does Becker describe the label of “criminal” or “juvenile delinquent” in society?
he argues that it is so stigmatising that it becomes a master status, overriding any other role or position an individual might hold
what happens to a person’s identity once it is known that they are a criminal?
the criminal status becomes more important to people than other aspects of their identity, such as being a parent, teacher, or farmer
how does Becker define a master status in relation to criminality?
a master status as criminal becomes the defining characteristic of an individual, regardless of any other characteristics they might have
what effect does a change in an individual’s social identity have on social interaction?
once an individual’s social identity has changed, social interactions change as people begin to react to the label
what happens to a labeled person in terms of social interaction?
the labeled person is excluded from interaction with conventional others and from involvement in conventional activities and opportunities
what is the process called when a labeled person becomes ‘caught up in’ the criminal role?
this process is referred to as role engulfment
how do changes in social identity and social interaction affect an individual’s self-image?
these changes lead to a change in the individual’s self-image
what happens to a labeled person in terms of group affiliation?
the labeled person often moves into a deviant group, such as a gang
how does movement into a deviant group affect an individual according to Becker?
it further affects the individual’s social identity, social interaction, and self-image
what do deviant groups provide to individuals?
they provide rationalisations, motives, and attitudes that support deviant behaviour
what is the famous quote from Becker regarding deviance?
“The deviant is the one to whom the label has successfully been applied, deviant behaviour is behaviour that people so label”
what does Becker argue about the nature of deviance?
Becker states that “Deviance is…created by society,” meaning social groups create deviance by making rules
how do social groups contribute to the concept of deviance?
they create rules whose infraction constitutes deviance and apply those rules to label particular people as outsiders
according to Becker, what defines deviance?
deviance is not an inherent quality of the act a person commits; rather, it is a consequence of the application of rules and sanctions by others to an ‘offender.’
what is labelling theory in the context of criminal acts?
labelling theory suggests that certain acts, like killing, can be seen as valid in specific scenarios, such as war, where killing is perceived as necessary
can criminalised acts become decriminalised?
yes
what does Becker’s observation about social class and policing indicate?
Becker noted that a middle-class boy is less likely to be taken to the police station, and if taken, he is less likely to be booked or convicted compared to someone from a different social class
what was the focus of the debate surrounding labelling theory in the 1960s and 1970s?
the debate centred on its object of explanation, the method of application, interpretation of results, and the amount of empirical support it received
what criticisms have been made against labelling theory?
critics argue that labelling theory ignores other motivations for engaging in secondary deviance, such as profit or pleasure, and neglects the interaction between the deviant and the social audience reacting to the deviance
how do individuals respond to being labelled as deviant, according to scholars?
some individuals do not passively accept the deviant label; they may modify their behaviour or reject the label entirely.
what does Hirschi believe about human nature and criminal behaviour?
Hirschi believes that all individuals possess a hedonistic drive from birth that inclines them to act selfishly and aggressively, leading to potential criminal behaviour
according to Hirschi, how do most people deal with their innate urges?
most individuals are able to control their natural urges, preventing them from engaging in criminal behaviour
what does Hirschi suggest about the motivation needed to commit crime?
Hirschi suggests that there is no strong motivation needed to commit crime, as the hedonistic drive is inherent in all of us
what fundamental question does Hirschi raise about societal rules?
Hirschi asks, “Why do men obey the rules of society?” suggesting that deviance is taken for granted and that conformity requires explanation
what does Hirschi imply about human behaviour regarding conformity and deviance?
he states, “The question is ‘Why don’t we all do it?’” indicating that there is evidence suggesting many would engage in deviance if they felt they could do so without consequence
how does Hirschi’s Social Control Theory relate to Durkheim’s views on deviance?
Hirschi’s theory is an extension and refinement of Durkheim’s notion that individuals are more likely to deviate when they are poorly integrated into ongoing group relations
what does Durkheim suggest about the impact of weakened group ties on individual behaviour?
Durkheim states, “The more weakened the groups to which [the individual] belongs, the less he depends on them, the more he consequently depends only on himself and recognises no other rules of conduct than what are founded on his private interests.”
what does Hirschi state about delinquent acts and social bonds?
Hirschi writes, “Delinquent acts occur when an individual’s bond to society is weak or broken”
what is the first key idea of social-control theory?
people are not inherently conforming
what is the second key idea of social-control theory?
socialisation is accomplished through the formation of a social bond between the individual and society
what does Hirschi believe about human nature and delinquency?
Hirschi argues that “we are all animals and thus naturally capable of committing criminal acts” (1969: 31), suggesting that it is conformity that must be explained
how is conformity achieved according to Social Control Theory?
conformity is achieved through socialisation, forming a bond between the individual and society, comprised of four major elements: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief
what is the relationship between the strength of social bonds and delinquent behaviour?
the stronger each element of the social bond, the less likely delinquent behaviour becomes
what does Hirschi suggest about attachment to society?
Hirschi suggests that the more attached persons are to other members of society, the more they believe in the values of conventional society
how does involvement in conventional activities relate to deviance?
the more individuals invest in and are involved in conventional lines of activity, the less likely they are to deviate
what is the first element that binds individuals to society according to Hirschi?
attachment - Emotional bonds with others like family and friends
which element involves the investment in conventional activities and goals?
commitment - Investing in activities like education and career
what does involvement in conventional activities limit according to Hirschi?
involvement - Limits time and opportunity for deviant behaviour
what does belief in social norms and values reduce the likelihood of?
belief - Reduces the likelihood of violating societal rules
what does Hirschi say about the essence of internalisation of norms in relation to attachment?
“The essence of internalisation of norms, conscience or the superego thus lies in the attachment of the individual to others”
what does Hirschi state about a person’s attachment to the wishes and expectations of others?
“If a person does not care about the wishes and expectations of other people…he is to an extent not bound by the norms. He is free to deviate”
what does Attachment in Social Control Theory refer to?
attachment refers to our emotional connection to others. The more we like, love, or respect others, the more we are sensitive to their opinions
how does attachment relate to delinquency according to Hirschi?
the delinquent is relatively free of the intimate attachments, aspirations, and moral beliefs that bind most people to a lawful life
why is the attached individual reluctant to deviate?
the attached individual is reluctant to deviate because doing so would invite negative evaluation from people whose opinions they value
what did Hirschi find about attachment to parents and peers?
Hirschi examined attachment to parents and peers, finding inverse relationships between both measures and delinquency
what does Hirschi say about Commitment in relation to deviant behaviour?
“The idea, then, is that the person invests time, energy, himself, in a certain line of activity - say, getting an education, building up a business, acquiring a reputation for virtue. When he considers deviant behaviour, he must consider the costs of deviant behaviour, the risk he runs of losing the investment he has made in conventional behaviour”
what does Commitment refer to in Social Control Theory?
commitment refers to participation in and evaluation of present and anticipated conventional activities, involving a ‘conventional’ (non-delinquent) lifestyle
how does commitment influence a person’s behaviour?
a committed person feels it is important to pursue goals that are socially approved (Krohn et al, 1983: 338). The level of commitment to conventional behaviour determines how much a person has to lose
what does Involvement refer to in Social Control Theory?
involvement refers to the extent to which a person is engrossed in conventional activities, which limits their ability to even think about deviant acts
what does Hirschi say about involvement and deviant behaviour?
“To the extent that he is engrossed in conventional activities, he cannot even think about deviant acts, let alone act out his inclinations”
what does Hirschi argue about a ‘life of virtue’ in relation to Involvement?
Hirschi (1969:21) contended that a ‘life of virtue’ results, at least in part, from having limited time and energy to engage in deviant behaviour
how does involvement in conventional activities affect opportunities for deviance?
Hirschi argued that the ‘person involved in conventional activities is tied to appointments, deadlines, work hours, plans, and the like, so the opportunity to commit deviant acts rarely arises’
what is the significance of participation in conventional activities?
participation in conventional activities leads toward socially valued success, reinforcing adherence to societal norms
what does Hirschi say about obedience to societal rules?
Hirschi stated that ‘there is variation in the extent to which people believe they should obey the rules of society, and, furthermore, that the less a person believes they should obey the rules, the more likely he is to violate them’
what did Hirschi assume about value systems in relation to deviance?
Hirschi assumed the existence of a common value system rather than subcultures that promote deviance
how does belief in the moral validity of social rules affect deviant behaviour?
the less individuals believe in the moral validity of social rules, the more likely they will be to commit deviant acts
what is a major critique of Hirschi’s Social Control Theory regarding motivation for criminal offending?
it provides no motivation for criminal offending, aside from the absence of social controls
what question arises about the contribution of elements in Hirschi’s theory to criminal behaviour?
how much do each of these elements contribute to the criminal behaviour committed?
what extraneous factors are important to consider in relation to criminal behaviour?
class, gender, and age are important to consider
