labelling and control theories

Question 1

what is labelling theory in criminology?

Answer 1

labelling theory is a collection of perspectives rather than a single theory, suggesting that societal labels can influence individual behaviour and identity

Question 2

what happens when someone is labeled as a criminal or deviant?

Answer 2

they may internalise that label, leading to further deviant behaviour and potentially becoming a self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 3

what is a self-fulfilling prophecy in the context of labelling theory?

Answer 3

it’s the idea that if someone is labeled negatively, they may begin to act in ways that conform to that label, even if it wasn’t their original identity

Question 4

how does labelling theory relate to societal reactions?

Answer 4

the theory emphasises that societal reactions and the stigma attached to labels can significantly impact an individual’s behaviour and identity

Question 5

how is labelling theory similar to techniques of neutralisation?

Answer 5

both concepts help explain the complexities of crime and deviance, with labelling theory focusing on the impact of labels and techniques of neutralisation explaining how individuals rationalise their deviant behaviour

Question 6

what do labelling perspectives suggest about formal reactions to crime?

Answer 6

they suggest that formal reactions can become a stepping-stone in the development of a criminal career and escalate antisocial behaviours

Question 7

who are 3 key theorists associated with labelling perspectives?

Answer 7

1. Becker
2. Lemert
3. Tannennbaum

Question 8

what is the foundation of labelling perspectives built upon?

Answer 8

symbolic interactionism, as proposed by Blumer

Question 9

what does symbolic interactionism posit?

Answer 9

that social meaning is generated through the repeated use of social actions, objects, and language

Question 10

how do definitions ‘cause’ deviance?

Answer 10

they generate symbolic processes that lead individuals to be set aside as negatively categorised and undergo a transformation of status

Question 11

what transformation can occur due to labelling?

Answer 11

individuals may be viewed as inferior or morally unfit, which can entrench them in a deviant identity

Question 12

how is the definition of ‘deviant’ behaviour constructed under labelling perspectives?

Answer 12

it is socially constructed through a process of repeated interactions

Question 13

who gives meaning to labels in the labelling perspective?

Answer 13

meaning is given to labels by both society and individuals themselves

Question 14

what contributes to the internalisation of labels?

Answer 14

the repeat application and internalisation of these labels contribute to how individuals perceive themselves

Question 15

what role do repeated interactions play in labelling perspectives?

Answer 15

they are essential in constructing the social meaning of deviant behaviour

Question 16

what does the labelling perspective suggest about deviance?

Answer 16

it postulates that deviance is in the eyes of the beholders and that labelling someone as deviant can lead to negative consequences, such as giving a ‘dog a bad name

Question 17

what is the central idea of labelling theory?

Answer 17

the central idea is that deviance is created by the social audience, its criteria of judgment, and the consequences of its judgment, which are the primary causes of deviance

Question 18

how do theorists in labelling theory view deviance and deviants?

Answer 18

they require criminologists to think of deviance and deviants as social constructions that arise from a process of interaction.

Question 19

what did this way of thinking lead to in terms of theory and analysis?

Answer 19

it led to the development of two related but separate areas of theory and analysis

Question 20

what does the first area of labelling perspective explore?

Answer 20

it explores the importance of social reactions in shaping the behaviour of those who are labelled as deviant

Question 21

what emphasis came with the focus on social reactions in labelling theory?

Answer 21

there was an emphasis on analytic methods that call for the discovery of meaning through qualitative methods

Question 22

what does the second area of labelling theory address?

Answer 22

it addresses questions regarding the development of definitions of behaviours as deviant or criminal

Question 23

what mechanisms are examined in relation to formal social control agencies?

Answer 23

it examines how agencies like the police decide who to process as criminal and thus label

Question 24

which theoretical framework is associated with the labelling perspective?

Answer 24

symbolic interactionism

Question 25

how does class relate to labelling perspectives?

Answer 25

class can never fully be removed from labelling perspectives, indicating that social class plays a significant role in the labelling process

Question 26

what is the first point from Chambliss’ writing regarding criminal acts?

Answer 26

acts are considered criminal because it is in the interests of the ruling class to define them as such

Question 27

what does the second point state about individuals labelled as criminal?

Answer 27

persons are labelled criminal because defining them in this way serves the interests of the ruling class

Question 28

what does the third point explain about the labelling of different social classes?

Answer 28

the lower classes are labelled criminal while the bourgeoisie is not, due to the bourgeoisie’s control of the means of production, which gives them control over the State and law enforcement

Question 29

what was the focus of Chambliss’ ethnographic study at ‘Hannibal High’?

Answer 29

Chambliss observed two groups of students to demonstrate how social class and societal labelling led to differing definitions of delinquency

Question 30

how did the two groups of students differ in community perception despite similar behaviours?

Answer 30

each group engaged in the same amount of delinquency but received different reactions; one group was seen as normal teenagers while the other was labelled as delinquent

Question 31

who are the ‘Saints’ in Chambliss’ study?

Answer 31

the ‘Saints’ are eight teenagers who engaged in the same delinquent behaviour as the ‘Roughnecks’ but came from middle-class homes, allowing them to evade the deviant label

Question 32

who are the ‘Roughnecks’ and how were they perceived by the community?

Answer 32

the ‘Roughnecks’ are six teenagers from lower-class households who were viewed by the community as troublemakers

Question 33

what types of delinquent activities did the ‘Saints’ engage in during Chambliss’ observation?

Answer 33

the ‘Saints’ participated in truancy, underage drinking, and other delinquencies nearly every day

Question 34

were the delinquencies of the ‘Saints’ limited to harmless activities?

Answer 34

no, the delinquencies included dangerous acts, such as removing barricades around road construction sites and waiting for motorists to crash

Question 35

what did Chambliss note about the consequences of the ‘Saints’ activities?

Answer 35

Chambliss found it surprising that no one was seriously injured as a result of the ‘Saints’ activities

Question 36

how did the police respond to the ‘Saints’ delinquent behaviour?

Answer 36

the ‘Saints’ were stopped and confronted by police officers on several occasions, but they were not deterred from their activities

Question 37

how did the labelling of the ‘Saints’ and ‘Roughnecks’ affect their futures?

Answer 37

the labelling shaped their futures while they were still in school, influencing perceptions and opportunities

Question 38

what role did grades play in the treatment of the ‘Saints’ and ‘Roughnecks’?

Answer 38

the ‘Saints’ generally had higher grades, leading to a more favourable perception, while the ‘Roughnecks’ struggled academically, resulting in negative labels

Question 39

how did visibility impact the treatment of the two groups?

Answer 39

the ‘Saints’ engaged in delinquent activities in less visible areas, avoiding detection, whereas the ‘Roughnecks’ were more visible in their misbehaviours, attracting scrutiny

Question 40

what was the significance of demeanour in the treatment of the ‘Saints’ and ‘Roughnecks’?

Answer 40

the ‘Saints’ appeared more respectful and polite, gaining sympathy, while the ‘Roughnecks’ had a more aggressive demeanour, leading to harsher treatment

Question 41

who is associated with an early type of labelling perspective in 1938?

Answer 41

Frank Tannenbaum

Question 42

what did Tannenbaum observe about delinquency?

Answer 42

he was struck by the normalcy of much delinquency among adolescents

Question 43

how did Tannenbaum view juvenile delinquency?

Answer 43

he noted that many forms of delinquency are part of adolescent street life, contributing to play, adventure, and excitement

Question 44

what is the issue with how delinquent activities are perceived?

Answer 44

while some view these activities nostalgically as part of youth, others see them as a nuisance or threat, which can lead to police involvement

Question 45

what does Tannenbaum suggest about police intervention?

Answer 45

police intervention can change how individuals and their behaviours are perceived by others and by themselves

Question 46

how does Tannenbaum describe the shift in perception following police intervention?

Answer 46

there is a shift from defining specific acts as evil to a broader definition of the individual involved

Question 47

why is the first contact with authorities significant, according to Tannenbaum?

Answer 47

it can initiate a ‘dramatisation of evil’ that separates the individual from peers and leads to specialised treatment

Question 48

what concern does Tannenbaum express regarding the ‘dramatisation of evil’?

Answer 48

he worries that this process can contribute more to creating a criminal identity than any other experience, leading individuals to see themselves as delinquents

Question 49

how does Tannenbaum view legal sanctions associated with police and courts?

Answer 49

he asserts that they create more problems than they solve, turning the conventional idea of deterrence on its head

Question 50

what solution does Tannenbaum propose regarding the dramatisation of evil?

Answer 50

he argues that “The way out is through a refusal to dramatize the evil. The less said about it the better”

Question 51

what does Tannenbaum suggest about the approach to deviance?

Answer 51

he suggests that the less said and done regarding deviant behaviour, the better

Question 52

what concepts does Tannenbaum develop in relation to deviance?

Answer 52

he develops the concepts of primary deviance and secondary deviance

Question 53

what is primary deviance according to Lemert?

Answer 53

primary deviance refers to the initial acts of deviance or criminality committed by an individual

Question 54

who does Lemert believe commits acts of primary deviance?

Answer 54

Lemert believes that almost everyone commits acts of primary deviance

Question 55

what are some reasons individuals might engage in primary deviance?

Answer 55

reasons include peer pressure and lack of social control

Question 56

how are minor deviant behaviours treated in society, according to Lemert?

Answer 56

for most people, minor deviant behaviors are routinely ignored or tolerated as long as they occur irregularly and are not part of a deviant role in society

Question 57

what is secondary deviance?

Answer 57

secondary deviance occurs when a person begins to employ their deviant behaviour or role as a means of defence, attack, or adjustment to the problems created by societal reactions

Question 58

how does Schur (1951) define secondary deviance?

Answer 58

Schur describes it as a behaviour that evolves to become a means of defence, attack, or adaptation to the problems created by real or anticipated disapproving, degrading, or isolating reactions from others

Question 59

what triggers the transition from primary to secondary deviance?

Answer 59

the transition occurs due to the societal reaction to an individual’s initial deviant behaviour, leading them to identify with and adopt their deviant role more fully

Question 60

what is a good example of secondary deviance?

Answer 60

when an offender adopts a criminal identity after their initial deviant behaviour

Question 61

what triggers the movement from primary deviance to secondary deviance?

Answer 61

it is triggered by a sequence of interactions that begins with an act of primary deviance, leading to social reactions

Question 62

what happens after the initial act of primary deviance?

Answer 62

the act causes a social reaction, which may lead to further acts of deviance.

Question 63

what is the result of continued acts of deviance and social reactions?

Answer 63

if this cycle continues, the individual may embrace a deviant role, leading to secondary deviance

Question 64

What does Becker (1963) argue about deviance?

Answer 64

Becker argues that deviance is not a quality of any particular person, population, or behaviour

Question 65

how does Becker define the nature of deviance?

Answer 65

he states that deviance is an imposition of the values of the dominant members of society on the subordinate members

Question 66

what does Becker suggest about deviant careerists?

Answer 66

he suggests that deviant careerists progress into a deviant status only when their deviant behaviour has been detected

Question 67

what is the implication of undetected deviant behaviour according to Becker?

Answer 67

deviant behaviour that has not been detected cannot be labeled as deviant

Question 68

what happens once deviant behaviour has been detected according to Becker?

Answer 68

once detected, the perpetrator is labeled as deviant

Question 69

how does the deviant label affect the individual’s life?

Answer 69

the deviant label acts as a master status, defining the deviant’s life in every way, regardless of any conventional behaviour they may continue to engage in

Question 70

what do deviants do to cope with the imposition of a deviant master status?

Answer 70

to survive, deviants band together in deviant subcultures

Question 71

what is the purpose of deviant subcultures according to Becker?

Answer 71

they help each other avoid the negative ramifications of the deviant label that they all share

Question 72

what is a significant aspect of Becker’s (1963) contribution to labelling theory?

Answer 72

his discussion of the development of deviant careers

Question 73

what are the three phases through which deviant or criminal careers emerge, according to Becker?

Answer 73

1. an act of initial rule-breaking occurs, whether intentional or not
2. being caught and publicly labeled as deviant

Question 74

what are the consequences of being labeled deviant?

Answer 74

it has important consequences for an individual’s public identity, social interaction, and self-identity

Question 75

how does Becker describe the label of “criminal” or “juvenile delinquent” in society?

Answer 75

he argues that it is so stigmatising that it becomes a master status, overriding any other role or position an individual might hold

Question 76

what happens to a person’s identity once it is known that they are a criminal?

Answer 76

the criminal status becomes more important to people than other aspects of their identity, such as being a parent, teacher, or farmer

Question 77

how does Becker define a master status in relation to criminality?

Answer 77

a master status as criminal becomes the defining characteristic of an individual, regardless of any other characteristics they might have

Question 78

what effect does a change in an individual’s social identity have on social interaction?

Answer 78

once an individual’s social identity has changed, social interactions change as people begin to react to the label

Question 79

what happens to a labeled person in terms of social interaction?

Answer 79

the labeled person is excluded from interaction with conventional others and from involvement in conventional activities and opportunities

Question 80

what is the process called when a labeled person becomes ‘caught up in’ the criminal role?

Answer 80

this process is referred to as role engulfment

Question 81

how do changes in social identity and social interaction affect an individual’s self-image?

Answer 81

these changes lead to a change in the individual’s self-image

Question 82

what happens to a labeled person in terms of group affiliation?

Answer 82

the labeled person often moves into a deviant group, such as a gang

Question 83

how does movement into a deviant group affect an individual according to Becker?

Answer 83

it further affects the individual’s social identity, social interaction, and self-image

Question 84

what do deviant groups provide to individuals?

Answer 84

they provide rationalisations, motives, and attitudes that support deviant behaviour

Question 85

what is the famous quote from Becker regarding deviance?

Answer 85

“The deviant is the one to whom the label has successfully been applied, deviant behaviour is behaviour that people so label”

Question 86

what does Becker argue about the nature of deviance?

Answer 86

Becker states that “Deviance is…created by society,” meaning social groups create deviance by making rules

Question 87

how do social groups contribute to the concept of deviance?

Answer 87

they create rules whose infraction constitutes deviance and apply those rules to label particular people as outsiders

Question 88

according to Becker, what defines deviance?

Answer 88

deviance is not an inherent quality of the act a person commits; rather, it is a consequence of the application of rules and sanctions by others to an ‘offender.’

Question 89

what is labelling theory in the context of criminal acts?

Answer 89

labelling theory suggests that certain acts, like killing, can be seen as valid in specific scenarios, such as war, where killing is perceived as necessary

Question 90

can criminalised acts become decriminalised?

Answer 90

yes

Question 91

what does Becker’s observation about social class and policing indicate?

Answer 91

Becker noted that a middle-class boy is less likely to be taken to the police station, and if taken, he is less likely to be booked or convicted compared to someone from a different social class

Question 92

what was the focus of the debate surrounding labelling theory in the 1960s and 1970s?

Answer 92

the debate centred on its object of explanation, the method of application, interpretation of results, and the amount of empirical support it received

Question 93

what criticisms have been made against labelling theory?

Answer 93

critics argue that labelling theory ignores other motivations for engaging in secondary deviance, such as profit or pleasure, and neglects the interaction between the deviant and the social audience reacting to the deviance

Question 94

how do individuals respond to being labelled as deviant, according to scholars?

Answer 94

some individuals do not passively accept the deviant label; they may modify their behaviour or reject the label entirely.

Question 95

what does Hirschi believe about human nature and criminal behaviour?

Answer 95

Hirschi believes that all individuals possess a hedonistic drive from birth that inclines them to act selfishly and aggressively, leading to potential criminal behaviour

Question 96

according to Hirschi, how do most people deal with their innate urges?

Answer 96

most individuals are able to control their natural urges, preventing them from engaging in criminal behaviour

Question 97

what does Hirschi suggest about the motivation needed to commit crime?

Answer 97

Hirschi suggests that there is no strong motivation needed to commit crime, as the hedonistic drive is inherent in all of us

Question 98

what fundamental question does Hirschi raise about societal rules?

Answer 98

Hirschi asks, “Why do men obey the rules of society?” suggesting that deviance is taken for granted and that conformity requires explanation

Question 99

what does Hirschi imply about human behaviour regarding conformity and deviance?

Answer 99

he states, “The question is ‘Why don’t we all do it?’” indicating that there is evidence suggesting many would engage in deviance if they felt they could do so without consequence

Question 100

how does Hirschi’s Social Control Theory relate to Durkheim’s views on deviance?

Answer 100

Hirschi’s theory is an extension and refinement of Durkheim’s notion that individuals are more likely to deviate when they are poorly integrated into ongoing group relations

Question 101

what does Durkheim suggest about the impact of weakened group ties on individual behaviour?

Answer 101

Durkheim states, “The more weakened the groups to which [the individual] belongs, the less he depends on them, the more he consequently depends only on himself and recognises no other rules of conduct than what are founded on his private interests.”

Question 102

what does Hirschi state about delinquent acts and social bonds?

Answer 102

Hirschi writes, “Delinquent acts occur when an individual’s bond to society is weak or broken”

Question 103

what is the first key idea of social-control theory?

Answer 103

people are not inherently conforming

Question 104

what is the second key idea of social-control theory?

Answer 104

socialisation is accomplished through the formation of a social bond between the individual and society

Question 105

what does Hirschi believe about human nature and delinquency?

Answer 105

Hirschi argues that “we are all animals and thus naturally capable of committing criminal acts” (1969: 31), suggesting that it is conformity that must be explained

Question 106

how is conformity achieved according to Social Control Theory?

Answer 106

conformity is achieved through socialisation, forming a bond between the individual and society, comprised of four major elements: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief

Question 107

what is the relationship between the strength of social bonds and delinquent behaviour?

Answer 107

the stronger each element of the social bond, the less likely delinquent behaviour becomes

Question 108

what does Hirschi suggest about attachment to society?

Answer 108

Hirschi suggests that the more attached persons are to other members of society, the more they believe in the values of conventional society

Question 109

how does involvement in conventional activities relate to deviance?

Answer 109

the more individuals invest in and are involved in conventional lines of activity, the less likely they are to deviate

Question 110

what is the first element that binds individuals to society according to Hirschi?

Answer 110

attachment - Emotional bonds with others like family and friends

Question 111

which element involves the investment in conventional activities and goals?

Answer 111

commitment - Investing in activities like education and career

Question 112

what does involvement in conventional activities limit according to Hirschi?

Answer 112

involvement - Limits time and opportunity for deviant behaviour

Question 113

what does belief in social norms and values reduce the likelihood of?

Answer 113

belief - Reduces the likelihood of violating societal rules

Question 114

what does Hirschi say about the essence of internalisation of norms in relation to attachment?

Answer 114

“The essence of internalisation of norms, conscience or the superego thus lies in the attachment of the individual to others”

Question 115

what does Hirschi state about a person’s attachment to the wishes and expectations of others?

Answer 115

“If a person does not care about the wishes and expectations of other people…he is to an extent not bound by the norms. He is free to deviate”

Question 116

what does Attachment in Social Control Theory refer to?

Answer 116

attachment refers to our emotional connection to others. The more we like, love, or respect others, the more we are sensitive to their opinions

Question 117

how does attachment relate to delinquency according to Hirschi?

Answer 117

the delinquent is relatively free of the intimate attachments, aspirations, and moral beliefs that bind most people to a lawful life

Question 118

why is the attached individual reluctant to deviate?

Answer 118

the attached individual is reluctant to deviate because doing so would invite negative evaluation from people whose opinions they value

Question 119

what did Hirschi find about attachment to parents and peers?

Answer 119

Hirschi examined attachment to parents and peers, finding inverse relationships between both measures and delinquency

Question 120

what does Hirschi say about Commitment in relation to deviant behaviour?

Answer 120

“The idea, then, is that the person invests time, energy, himself, in a certain line of activity - say, getting an education, building up a business, acquiring a reputation for virtue. When he considers deviant behaviour, he must consider the costs of deviant behaviour, the risk he runs of losing the investment he has made in conventional behaviour”

Question 121

what does Commitment refer to in Social Control Theory?

Answer 121

commitment refers to participation in and evaluation of present and anticipated conventional activities, involving a ‘conventional’ (non-delinquent) lifestyle

Question 122

how does commitment influence a person’s behaviour?

Answer 122

a committed person feels it is important to pursue goals that are socially approved (Krohn et al, 1983: 338). The level of commitment to conventional behaviour determines how much a person has to lose

Question 123

what does Involvement refer to in Social Control Theory?

Answer 123

involvement refers to the extent to which a person is engrossed in conventional activities, which limits their ability to even think about deviant acts

Question 124

what does Hirschi say about involvement and deviant behaviour?

Answer 124

“To the extent that he is engrossed in conventional activities, he cannot even think about deviant acts, let alone act out his inclinations”

Question 125

what does Hirschi argue about a ‘life of virtue’ in relation to Involvement?

Answer 125

Hirschi (1969:21) contended that a ‘life of virtue’ results, at least in part, from having limited time and energy to engage in deviant behaviour

Question 126

how does involvement in conventional activities affect opportunities for deviance?

Answer 126

Hirschi argued that the ‘person involved in conventional activities is tied to appointments, deadlines, work hours, plans, and the like, so the opportunity to commit deviant acts rarely arises’

Question 127

what is the significance of participation in conventional activities?

Answer 127

participation in conventional activities leads toward socially valued success, reinforcing adherence to societal norms

Question 128

what does Hirschi say about obedience to societal rules?

Answer 128

Hirschi stated that ‘there is variation in the extent to which people believe they should obey the rules of society, and, furthermore, that the less a person believes they should obey the rules, the more likely he is to violate them’

Question 129

what did Hirschi assume about value systems in relation to deviance?

Answer 129

Hirschi assumed the existence of a common value system rather than subcultures that promote deviance

Question 130

how does belief in the moral validity of social rules affect deviant behaviour?

Answer 130

the less individuals believe in the moral validity of social rules, the more likely they will be to commit deviant acts

Question 131

what is a major critique of Hirschi’s Social Control Theory regarding motivation for criminal offending?

Answer 131

it provides no motivation for criminal offending, aside from the absence of social controls

Question 132

what question arises about the contribution of elements in Hirschi’s theory to criminal behaviour?

Answer 132

how much do each of these elements contribute to the criminal behaviour committed?

Question 133

what extraneous factors are important to consider in relation to criminal behaviour?

Answer 133

class, gender, and age are important to consider