durkheim, structural functionalism and strain

Question 1

what are 2 of Durkheim’s ideas?

Answer 1

1. views society as a whole, composed of interrelated parts, a functioning organism
2. the whole must be given priority, because its influence is greater than that of a single part

Question 2

what are the two types of solidarity identified by Durkheim?

Answer 2

1. mechanical solidarity
2. organic solidarity

Question 3

what characterises mechanical solidarity in traditional societies?

Answer 3

shared values, beliefs, and norms leading to a collective consciousness

Question 4

how does organic solidarity differ from mechanical solidarity?

Answer 4

arises in modern societies with specialised roles and interdependence

Question 5

according to Mechtraud, what does the concept of solidarity refer to?

Answer 5

social unity that keeps a group together and facilitates cooperation.

Question 6

what question does Mechtraud’s interpretation of solidarity aim to answer?

Answer 6

“What is that thing which keeps a group together and makes them cooperate?”

Question 7

what does Durkheim define ‘mechanical’ as?

Answer 7

the condition typical of early,
segmentary, relatively homogeneous society when sentiments and beliefs are shared in common, where individuation is minimal, and collective thinking is maximal (pre-modern society)

Question 8

what does Durkheim define ‘organic’ as?

Answer 8

the condition that becomes prevalent with
demographic increases in the population producing a more differentiated population that becomes interdependent with an increase in the division of labour (modern society)

Question 9

how were simpler societies unified according to Durkheim?

Answer 9

by ‘mechanical solidarity,’ characterised by monotonous work, conformity, and a strong collective consciousness

Question 10

what does Durkheim mean by ‘integration’ in simpler societies?

Answer 10

a state of cohesion with strong social bonds and the subordination of the self to a common cause

Question 11

how do societies evolve with increasing division of labor?

Answer 11

they become more complex and unified through ‘organic solidarity,’ based on interdependence among individuals

Question 12

what is ‘regulation’ in the context of complex societies?

Answer 12

the erosion of mutual moral support, weakening of the collective force of society, and extreme individualism leading to deviant behaviour

Question 13

what did Durkheim describe as a consequence of extreme individualism?

Answer 13

lead towards deviant behaviour in society

Question 14

how does Durkheim view criminal behaviour?

Answer 14

he does not immediately discount it as a malaise; instead, he sees it as a necessary and functional part of social life

Question 15

why might crime be considered necessary in society according to Durkheim?

Answer 15

crime can promote social change, reinforce social norms, and clarify moral boundaries

Question 16

what role does crime play in reinforcing social norms?

Answer 16

helps to define acceptable behavior by contrasting it with deviant actions, reinforcing what is considered right or wrong

Question 17

how can crime lead to social change?

Answer 17

it can highlight areas of social injustice or need for reform, prompting society to adapt and evolve

Question 18

what is one of the key functions of crime in society?

Answer 18

serves to bring communities together in response to deviant behavior, fostering social cohesion

Question 19

what does Durkheim mean when he says “crime is normal”?

Answer 19

suggests that crime is an inevitable part of society, and a society completely free of crime is impossible

Question 20

how does crime affirm collective sentiments in society?

Answer 20

crime helps to reinforce the shared values and norms of a community by contrasting acceptable behavior with deviant actions

Question 21

why does Durkheim believe crime is necessary for the existence of society?

Answer 21

it plays a role in maintaining social order and cohesion by prompting responses that strengthen community bonds

Question 22

what is the relationship between crime and social change according to Durkheim?

Answer 22

crime can lead to discussions about social norms and values, potentially resulting in social change and evolution.

Question 23

in what way does crime contribute to the moral framework of society?

Answer 23

by identifying and addressing deviant behaviour, society can clarify its moral boundaries and expectations.

Question 24

how do functionalists like Durkheim view the role of crime in society?

Answer 24

argue that crime is functional for society because it prompts community reactions that strengthen social bonds

Question 25

what happens when a community reacts to crime?

Answer 25

the community comes together, fostering unity and solidarity among its members

Question 26

how does crime affect moral boundaries in a community?

Answer 26

crime helps to define acceptable and unacceptable behaviours, reinforcing the moral boundaries of the community

Question 27

what are the social reactions to crime that contribute to cohesion and solidarity?

Answer 27

defining an action as a crime and punishing the offender build cohesion and reinforce moral boundaries

Question 28

why is crime considered beneficial for social stability?

Answer 28

it catalyses collective responses that clarify values and norms, contributing to the stability and continuity of society

Question 29

according to Durkheim, how does crime bring people together in a community?

Answer 29

crime prompts individuals to stop each other on the street, visit each other, and gather to discuss the event, fostering a sense of unity and shared indignation

Question 30

how does Durkheim describe the collective emotional response to a scandal or crime in a small town?

Answer 30

refers to it as a “unique temper” that emerges from the exchange of similar impressions and expressions of indignation, representing the public mood of the community

Question 31

what role does the communal reaction to crime play in reinforcing social bonds?

Answer 31

the collective discussions and shared emotional responses to crime help strengthen social bonds, reinforce shared values, and create a sense of unity among community members

Question 32

What does Lunden (1958) argue about crime in relation to human nature and society?

Answer 32

crime is not due to any imperfection of human nature or society; it is a normal part of the totality of society, similar to birth or death

Question 33

how does social reaction to crime contribute to society, according to the structural functionalist perspective?

Answer 33

specific level of social reaction, defining or punishing certain actions as deviant, helps maintain social states like cohesiveness, solidarity, and moral boundaries, which are essential for social order and survival

Question 34

what is Durkheim’s view on the role of crime in society?

Answer 34

Durkheim sees crime as an essential part of society, but this raises concerns about the impact on the victims of crime

Question 35

what is a limitation of the functionalist approach to crime?

Answer 35

there is limited empirical evidence to support functionalism, which questions its validity in explaining crime and its effects

Question 36

what is the title of Emile Durkheim’s most well-known book published in 1897?

Answer 36

suicide

Question 37

what significant contribution did Durkheim make regarding the understanding of suicide?

Answer 37

he was one of the first theorists to provide a sociological argument about the root causes of suicide

Question 38

how did Durkheim’s explanation of suicide differ from traditional views?

Answer 38

while traditional explanations focused on individual factors, Durkheim argued that social context and considerations significantly influence suicide

Question 39

during what period was Durkheim writing, and how did it impact his work?

Answer 39

during a time of dramatic social change due to the industrial revolution, which influenced his views on social factors affecting suicide

Question 40

how did Durkheim define ‘anomie’ in 1951?

Answer 40

he disintegrated state of a society that lacks a body of common values or morals to effectively govern conduct

Question 41

according to Durkheim, is anomie a property of individuals or society?

Answer 41

Durkheim viewed anomie as a property of society, not of individuals

Question 42

what social conditions did Durkheim highlight in relation to anomie?

Answer 42

he called attention to social disorganisation and the effects of these conditions, particularly the absence of clearly defined group norms or a state of normlessness

Question 43

what did Durkheim hypothesise about the relationship between suicide and social integration?

Answer 43

that suicide results from a lack of social integration and moral regulation, with the risk of suicide inversely proportional to the degree of social integration in groups

Question 44

how did Durkheim define social integration?

Answer 44

social integration refers to the extent to which an individual possesses and maintains social relations with groups and communities

Question 45

what is the significance of a common conscience in Durkheim’s theory?

Answer 45

integrated individuals share a common conscience and are bound to the mores and demands of their group

Question 46

how did Durkheim define regulation in the context of his theory?

Answer 46

regulation refers to the moral requirements and normative expectations directed from the group or collective toward the individual

Question 47

what does it mean to be a regulated individual according to Durkheim?

Answer 47

behaviourally bound to group expectations

Question 48

what happens to suicide levels when social norms weaken according to Durkheim?

Answer 48

levels of suicide are likely to increase when norms weaken and fail to fulfil their critical function, leading to anomie

Question 49

how does Durkheim’s hypothesis in “Suicide” relate to his theory of social cohesion?

Answer 49

the hypothesis follows logically from his theory of social cohesion and social isolation, suggesting that social conditions influence suicide rates

Question 50

what does Durkheim suggest about societies with high social cohesion?

Answer 50

in societies with a high degree of social cohesion, strong identity, group integration, and a sense of belonging, there will be little or no suicide

Question 51

what are Durkheim’s general assumptions about the effects of anomie?

Answer 51

Durkheim assumes that a disorganised social condition leads to suffering and distress, where the absence of norms allows aspirations to extend beyond achievable means

Question 52

what is egoistic suicide according to Durkheim?

Answer 52

occurs when the individual does not feel well integrated into society

Question 53

what characterises altruistic suicide?

Answer 53

occurs when the individual is too integrated into society

Question 54

what is fatalistic suicide?

Answer 54

occurs when the regulation of society is excessive

Question 55

when is anomic suicide likely to occur?

Answer 55

occurs when the regulation of society is disrupted

Question 56

what defines egoistic suicides in Durkheim’s theory?

Answer 56

egoistic suicides are not connected with, or dependent on, their community

Question 57

how does Durkheim describe altruistic suicide?

Answer 57

altruistic suicide occurs when a person is overly integrated into a group and feels that no sacrifice is too great for the good of the larger group

Question 58

what triggers anomic suicides according to Durkheim?

Answer 58

anomic suicides occur when the victim cannot deal with a crisis rationally, or when their relationship with society is suddenly changed, viewing suicide as a solution to their problem

Question 59

what causes fatalistic suicide in Durkheim’s view?

Answer 59

fatalistic suicide is thought to be caused by excessive societal regulation that restricts the victim’s freedom, leading them to see no viable future for themselves

Question 60

how does Durkheim define anomie?

Answer 60

does not define anomie as just one thing; he sees it as a complex concept

Question 61

what does Durkheim argue about the normlessness of goals?

Answer 61

argues that anomie is the normlessness of goals, stating that in the absence of social authority, “our capacity for feeling is in itself an insatiable and bottomless abyss”

Question 62

what role does societal authority play in individual contentment?

Answer 62

society exerts authority over individuals, creating boundaries for their desires, which allows them to find contentment

Question 63

what happens when regulation fails, according to Durkheim?

Answer 63

when regulation fails, society experiences dejection and pessimism, which is reflected in the curve of suicides

Question 64

how does Durkheim relate anomie to the disembedded economy?

Answer 64

anomie arises when socially prescribed goals are practically unattainable, particularly in the context of a disembedded economy

Question 65

what does Durkheim say about pursuing unattainable goals?

Answer 65

he states that to pursue a goal which is by definition unattainable is to “condemn oneself to a state of perpetual unhappiness”

Question 66

how does Durkheim differentiate between undefined and limitless ends?

Answer 66

the ends are not really undefined, but they are by definition limitless, contributing to the sense of anomie

Question 67

what is the basis of Durkheim’s understanding of anomie?

Answer 67

Durkheim’s understanding of anomie derives from his concern about the disruptive tendencies of fundamental features of modern, industrial society

Question 68

what specific features of industrial society contribute to anomie?

Answer 68

Durkheim argues that specific features of industrial society, especially in economic activity, produce a chronic state of normative deregulation

Question 69

what is the effect of normative deregulation on valued goals?

Answer 69

as a result of normative deregulation, valued goals become ill conceived, and society fails to provide normative limits on people’s desires

Question 70

What is Durkheim’s professional background?

Answer 70

sociologist, not a criminologist

Question 71

How have Durkheim’s theories been developed?

Answer 71

Durkheim’s theories have been developed with a sociological perspective in mind

Question 72

why is it important to contextualise the idea of strain?

Answer 72

contextualise the idea of strain through a criminological perspective

Question 73

how can we examine the concept of strain in relation to Durkheim’s theories?

Answer 73

achieve this by examining Merton’s concept of strain

Question 74

what is the core idea of Robert Merton’s strain theory?

Answer 74

the core idea is that blocked opportunities to attain successful goals generate pressure that leads to criminality or deviant behaviour

Question 75

what are the two central elements around which society is organised, according to Merton?

Answer 75

society is organised around culturally defined goals and institutionalised means

Question 76

what are culturally defined goals?

Answer 76

culturally defined goals are the things that the culture of the society defines as worth pursuing, such as wealth, prestige, and status

Question 77

what are institutionalised means?

Answer 77

there are legitimate means available to us to seek to achieve the goals we aspire to, or the ways we do so

Question 78

what did Merton’s strain theory aim to explain?

Answer 78

merton’s strain theory sought to explain why certain cultures, groups, and individuals are more prone to engage in anti-social and/or illegal behaviours

Question 79

how do members of society receive messages about acceptable behaviours, according to Merton?

Answer 79

Merton asserted that members of society receive messages about what is normal, including acceptable behaviours, from societal institutions

Question 80

how does Merton define “normal” in his theory?

Answer 80

normal is that which is the ‘…psychologically expectable, if not culturally approved, response to determinate social conditions.’

Question 81

what do most people do in relation to society’s rules of behaviour?

Answer 81

most people, most of the time, abide by society’s rules of behaviour, thereby remaining ‘normal’

Question 82

what does Merton’s strain theory suggest about the accessibility of culturally defined goals and institutionalised means?

Answer 82

Merton’s theory points out that culturally defined goals and institutionalised means are not always accessible to all members of society

Question 83

what is the implication of having limited or no access to culturally defined goals and means, according to Merton?

Answer 83

for Merton, crime is likely to occur when individuals have limited, or no, access to these goals and means

Question 84

what does Merton say about the stress on the value of particular goals?

Answer 84

Merton states that ‘…there may develop a very heavy, at times, virtually exclusive, stress upon the value of particular goals, involving comparatively little concern with the institutionally prescribed means of striving towards these goals’

Question 85

how did American institutions in the 1950s prioritise cultural goals versus means?

Answer 85

according to Merton, American institutions of the 1950s placed greater emphasis upon cultural goals than upon institutional or legitimate means to achieve them

Question 86

what was the result of the overwhelming focus on cultural goals in American institutions?

Answer 86

resulted in an overwhelming focus on cultural goals with relatively little emphasis on the institutionalised means to achieve them

Question 87

what happens when the emphasis on institutionalised means relaxes while goals are over-emphasised?

Answer 87

when the emphasis on institutionalised means relaxes and goals are over-emphasised, criminality becomes permissible

Question 88

what did Merton assert about the resultant stress from this imbalance?

Answer 88

Merton asserted that this ‘resultant stress’ leads to a breakdown of the regulatory structure, causing a ‘lack of coordination’ between means and ends, which leads to anomie

Question 89

what does Merton say about the relationship between cultural values and social structure?

Answer 89

Merton explains that when a system of cultural values promotes certain common symbols of success while the social structure restricts access to approved modes of acquiring these symbols for a significant part of the population, antisocial behaviour can occur on a large scale

Question 90

how does egalitarian ideology relate to noncompeting groups in the pursuit of success?

Answer 90

Merton argues that our egalitarian ideology implies the existence of noncompeting groups and individuals in the pursuit of pecuniary success, even though the same success-symbols are considered desirable for all

Question 91

what does Merton mean by class differentials in accessibility of success-symbols?

Answer 91

he states that while the goals are perceived to transcend class lines, the actual social organisation creates class differentials in the accessibility of these common success-symbols

Question 92

what is the most common adaptation taken by members of society according to Merton?

Answer 92

conformity to both cultural goals and institutional means is the most common adaptation. This acceptance is essential for the stability of society

Question 93

what does Merton say about the behaviour of members within a social order?

Answer 93

he states, “The mesh of expectancies which constitutes every social order is sustained by the modal behaviour of its members falling within the first category”

Question 94

how does Merton define retreatism?

Answer 94

when individuals reject both cultural goals and institutional means. It is the least common adaptation and these individuals are often alienated from society, living on its fringes

Question 95

what does Merton refer to as the true ‘aliens’ in society?

Answer 95

notes that those who engage in retreatism “sociologically, these constitute the true ‘aliens’”

Question 96

what does Innovation mean in Merton’s theory?

Answer 96

innovation refers to individuals who have embraced the cultural emphasis on achieving certain goals but have not fully internalised the institutional norms that dictate how to achieve those goals

Question 97

how does Merton define Ritualism?

Answer 97

ritualism involves scaling down the ambitious cultural goals of significant financial success and rapid social mobility to a level where an individual’s aspirations can be realistically satisfied

Question 98

what does Merton’s strain theory argue is responsible for criminality?

Answer 98

Merton’s strain theory posits that a disjuncture between culturally defined goals and the means to achieve them is responsible for criminality

Question 99

how does Merton describe culturally defined goals?

Answer 99

culturally defined goals comprise “a frame of aspirational reference,” representing the things that are “worth striving for.”

Question 100

where do these culturally defined goals originate from?

Answer 100

these goals are institutional and arise from social institutions, including informal sources of cultural goals such as families and schools

Question 101

what is a key feature of strain theory according to Agnew?

Answer 101

Strain theory is very flexible, allowing for multiple revisions over the years

Question 102

what is the most prominent revision of strain theory?

Answer 102

Robert Agnew’s General Strain Theory (GST)

Question 103

how does Agnew’s General Strain Theory relate to previous theories?

Answer 103

Agnew’s GST represents a modification and extension of earlier strain theories of crime and delinquency, including those proposed by Durkheim and Merton

Question 104

when did Robert Agnew propose his revised version of strain theory?

Answer 104

Robert Agnew proposed his revisionist version of strain theory in the 1980s, specifically in 1984, 1985, 1987, and 1989

Question 105

how did Agnew broaden strain theory?

Answer 105

Agnew broadened strain theory by including various sources of strain, rather than just focusing on the discrepancy between goals and means

Question 106

what did Agnew identify as sources of strain?

Answer 106

Agnew argued that there are several sources of strain beyond just the disjunction between aspirations and expectations

Question 107

In what way did Agnew expand the concept of strain theory?

Answer 107

Agnew expanded the concept of strain theory by recognising different varieties of strain that can lead to criminal behaviour

Question 108

how did Agnew broaden the conception of strain?

Answer 108

Agnew broadened the conception of strain to include a wider array of potential stressors that can affect individuals from various socioeconomic backgrounds, not just lower-class individuals

Question 109

what impact does Agnew’s advancement of strain theory have on earlier interpretations?

Answer 109

Agnew’s advancement of strain theory compensates, in part, for Durkheim and Merton’s interpretations, making the theory more inclusive and applicable to a broader range of experiences

Question 110

what does General Strain Theory (GST) argue regarding strains or stressors?

Answer 110

GST argues that strains or stressors increase the likelihood of negative emotions like anger and frustration, which can create pressure for corrective action, with crime being one possible response

Question 111

how can crime serve as a response to strain according to GST?

Answer 111

crime may be a method for reducing strain, such as stealing money to fulfil desires, seeking revenge, or alleviating negative emotions through actions like illicit drug use

Question 112

what new categories of strain does GST introduce?

Answer 112

GST introduces several new categories of strain, including the loss of positive stimuli (like a romantic partner or a friend), the presentation of negative stimuli (such as physical assaults), and new categories of goal blockage (like failing to achieve justice goals)

Question 113

what is the first subcategory of strain according to Agnew?

Answer 113

strain as the disjunction between aspirations (ideal goals) and expected level of goal achievement

Question 114

what is the second subcategory of strain?

Answer 114

strain as the disjunction between expectations and actual achievements

Question 115

what is the third subcategory of strain?

Answer 115

strain as the disjunction between just outcomes and actual outcomes

Question 116

what are the two types of strain identified by Agnew?

Answer 116

1. objective strain
2. subjective strain

Question 117

what is objective strain?

Answer 117

actual, observable stressors or strains that can affect individuals, regardless of personal perceptions

Question 118

what is subjective strain?

Answer 118

how individuals perceive and interpret stressors, meaning that stress can vary from person to person

Question 119

what is “criminal coping” according to Agnew (2001)?

Answer 119

a term used where crime is employed as a coping strategy in response to strain

Question 120

under what conditions are strains most likely to result in crime?

Answer 120

when they are seen as unjust

Question 121

what is the second condition that makes strains likely to lead to crime?

Answer 121

when they are seen as high in magnitude

Question 122

what is the third condition associated with strains leading to crime?

Answer 122

when they are associated with low social control

Question 123

what is the fourth condition that creates pressure or incentive to engage in criminal coping?

Answer 123

when they create some pressure or incentive to engage in criminal coping

Question 124

how did Agnew (1992) broaden the scope of strain theory?

Answer 124

he conceptualised strain to include not only the blockage of positively valued goals but also the loss of positive stimuli and the presence of negative stimuli as precursors to delinquency and crime

Question 125

what does Agnew argue about the relationship between strain and delinquency?

Answer 125

he argues that strain theory should address broader social contexts, particularly how the larger social environment conditions this relationship

Question 126

what are some contextual effects identified by Agnew (1999) that may increase criminal responses to strain?

Answer 126

“Values conducive to crime,” “the presence of criminal others/groups,” and “opportunities for crime.”

Question 127

what is late modernity?

Answer 127

a period of significant transition in society

Question 128

how did the systems of modernity affect empowerment and social mobility?

Answer 128

the systems of modernity, characterised by feudal and traditional society, left little room for concepts such as empowerment and social mobility

Question 129

what happens to tradition in late modernity?

Answer 129

in late modernity, society loses hold on tradition, allowing individuals to gain more freedom

Question 130

how did space and place relate in pre-modern times according to Anthony Giddens?

Answer 130

in pre-modern times, space and place largely coincided and were dominated by localised activities

Question 131

what change occurs in late modernity regarding space and place?

Answer 131

late modernity increasingly removes space from place by fostering relationships with ‘absent’ others

Question 132

how do experiences and traditions differ between pre-modern and late modern eras?

Answer 132

in the pre-modern era, experiences and traditions were confined to particular localities, making them highly contextual and fragmented, unlike the broader connections in late modernity

Question 133

what is a key characteristic of late modernity regarding choices?

Answer 133

late modernity is characterised by a plurality of choices but lacks guidance on which choices should be made

Question 134

how do late-modern societies differ in terms of life-worlds?

Answer 134

late-modern societies contain diverse, segmented life-worlds, where individuals are surrounded by and aware of alternative ways of living

Question 135

what role does global media play in late modernity?

Answer 135

global media reinforces the diversity of experiences by presenting individuals with a greater array of milieux

Question 136

how does late modernity contrast with the Enlightenment?

Answer 136

unlike the reasoned certainty of the Enlightenment, the reflexive nature of late modernity is marked by doubt

Question 137

what is a key characteristic of late modernity as described by Giddens?

Answer 137

individualisation is a key characteristic of late modernity, which often comes at the expense of community

Question 138

how does Giddens view the traditional face-to-face community in late modernity?

Answer 138

Giddens argues that the traditional face-to-face community is being undermined by processes of detraditionalisation and individualisation

Question 139

what happens to traditional sources of support in late modernity?

Answer 139

traditional sources of support are no longer available in late modernity

Question 140

what does Giddens mean by “disembedded” social relations?

Answer 140

Giddens argues that ‘social relations’ are disembedded, meaning they are lifted out of local contexts and restructured

Question 141

what does Beck suggest happens to individuals without the security of collectively based institutions?

Answer 141

individuals are forced to become the ‘actor, designer, juggler, and stage director’ of their own biography, identity, social networks, commitments, and convictions

Question 142

how does Beck (1994) define the term ‘individualisation’?

Answer 142

individualisation encapsulates the disintegration of many certainties of industrial society and the resulting need to find and invent new certainties for oneself in their absence

Question 143

what are some roles individuals must take on in the context of individualisation?

Answer 143

individuals must take on roles such as actor, designer, juggler, and stage director of their own lives

Question 144

what does the shift towards individualisation signify in late modernity?

Answer 144

it signifies the loss of traditional certainties and the necessity for individuals to create their own sense of identity and purpose

Question 145

what is one consequence of the disembedding of social relations in late modern society?

Answer 145

there is a loss of trust within late modern society

Question 146

what do individuals in late modernity rely on instead of local knowledges?

Answer 146

individuals rely on generalised expert systems rather than local knowledges

Question 147

how does Giddens (1994) describe the interaction with ‘absent others’ in disembedded social relations?

Answer 147

he states that the disembedded characteristics of abstract systems mean constant interaction with ‘absent others’—people one never sees or meets, but whose actions directly affect features of one’s own life

Question 148

what happens if expert knowledges fail in a disembedded context?

Answer 148

the repercussions of such failures are far wider than the local context.

Question 149

what characterises the reliance upon global expert systems in late modernity?

Answer 149

this reliance is characterised by uncertainty and a lack of trust

Question 150

what is a key characteristic of late modernity related to self-awareness?

Answer 150

increased reflexivity is a key characteristic of late modernity

Question 151

how does increased reflexivity relate to feelings of vulnerability?

Answer 151

increased reflexivity is associated with increased vulnerability or a heightened perception of vulnerability, leading to ontological insecurity and anxiety

Question 152

what does Giddens (1991) suggest about the experience of living in late modernity?

Answer 152

he suggests that it is an uncomfortable and insecure world, influenced by both local and global hazards, and separated from the structural certainties of modernity

Question 153

how does Beck (1992) describe decision-making in late modernity?

Answer 153

decision-making involves a forward-looking calculation of risk due to the perceived vulnerabilities

Question 154

what metaphor does Giddens (1991) use to describe the experience of living in a high modernity world?

Answer 154

he compares it to riding a juggernaut, highlighting the unpredictable and uncontrollable nature of change in this context

Question 155

what does Wallis (2001) mean by “reflexive knowledge” in late modernity?

Answer 155

reflexive knowledge means that hypotheses can be altered or abandoned based on new information

Question 156

what is a significant consequence of living in an era cut loose from the certainties of the past?

Answer 156

it creates an environment filled with risk and uncertainty

Question 157

in late modernity, why are trust and risk important?

Answer 157

trust and risk are essential because, without fate, every action and choice involves risk

Question 158

what challenge does an individual face regarding identity in late modernity?

Answer 158

maintaining a sense of identity or ontological security becomes difficult due to constant change and uncertainty

Question 159

how does Wallis (2001) describe the atmosphere of late modernity?

Answer 159

it is characterised by uncertainty and the possibility for choice and action, emphasising the importance of managing risk

Question 160

what is ontological insecurity in the context of late modernity?

Answer 160

ontological insecurity refers to feelings of instability and uncertainty regarding one’s self-identity and environment, caused by the conditions of late modernity

Question 161

how does Giddens (1990) define ontological security?

Answer 161

ontological security is the confidence individuals have in the continuity of their self-identity and the constancy of their surrounding social and material environments

Question 162

what factors foster ontological security?

Answer 162

ontological security relies on routine, a stable sense of self-identity, and reflexive awareness about one’s actions and motivations

Question 163

what characterises a person with ontological security?

Answer 163

an ontologically secure person has a stable and unquestioned sense of self and understands their place in the world relative to others and their environment

Question 164

what is the emotional experience when someone faces ontological insecurity?

Answer 164

when experiencing ontological insecurity, individuals feel the opposite of stability, leading to confusion and uncertainty about their identity and place in the world

Question 165

what are the key characteristics of late modernity?

Answer 165

key characteristics include globalisation, industrialisation, and rapid technological advancements

Question 166

how does Giddens (1990) define globalisation?

Answer 166

globalisation is defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations that link distant localities, where local events are influenced by far-off occurrences and vice versa

Question 167

why is it a mistake to view globalisation solely in economic terms?

Answer 167

Giddens argues that globalisation is fundamentally social, cultural, and political, not just economic, highlighting its broader impacts on society

Question 168

how does globalisation affect personal lives?

Answer 168

globalisation influences not only global or distant events but also intimate and personal aspects of individuals’ lives, making it an ‘in here’ phenomenon as well

Question 169

why is late modernity used to examine strain?

Answer 169

late modernity is used to examine strain because it reflects the cultural and economic changes that have occurred, which impact social dynamics and individual experiences

Question 170

what does Keith Hayward argue about early strain models?

Answer 170

Hayward suggests that theorists have been hesitant to update early strain models considering the cultural and economic changes associated with late modernity

Question 171

how have rapid changes in late modern society contributed to strain?

Answer 171

the rapid social changes in late modernity create new pressures and challenges for individuals, leading to feelings of strain and instability

Question 172

in what areas does strain particularly manifest in late modernity?

Answer 172

strain is particularly evident in rural areas during the late modern period, where traditional structures may be disrupted by modernisation