durkheim, structural functionalism and strain Flashcards
1
Q
what are 2 of Durkheim’s ideas?
A
- views society as a whole, composed of interrelated parts, a functioning organism
- the whole must be given priority, because its influence is greater than that of a single part
2
Q
what are the two types of solidarity identified by Durkheim?
A
- mechanical solidarity
- organic solidarity
3
Q
what characterises mechanical solidarity in traditional societies?
A
shared values, beliefs, and norms leading to a collective consciousness
4
Q
how does organic solidarity differ from mechanical solidarity?
A
arises in modern societies with specialised roles and interdependence
5
Q
according to Mechtraud, what does the concept of solidarity refer to?
A
social unity that keeps a group together and facilitates cooperation.
6
Q
what question does Mechtraud’s interpretation of solidarity aim to answer?
A
“What is that thing which keeps a group together and makes them cooperate?”
7
Q
what does Durkheim define ‘mechanical’ as?
A
the condition typical of early,
segmentary, relatively homogeneous society when sentiments and beliefs are shared in common, where individuation is minimal, and collective thinking is maximal (pre-modern society)
8
Q
what does Durkheim define ‘organic’ as?
A
the condition that becomes prevalent with
demographic increases in the population producing a more differentiated population that becomes interdependent with an increase in the division of labour (modern society)
9
Q
how were simpler societies unified according to Durkheim?
A
by ‘mechanical solidarity,’ characterised by monotonous work, conformity, and a strong collective consciousness
10
Q
what does Durkheim mean by ‘integration’ in simpler societies?
A
a state of cohesion with strong social bonds and the subordination of the self to a common cause
11
Q
how do societies evolve with increasing division of labor?
A
they become more complex and unified through ‘organic solidarity,’ based on interdependence among individuals
12
Q
what is ‘regulation’ in the context of complex societies?
A
the erosion of mutual moral support, weakening of the collective force of society, and extreme individualism leading to deviant behaviour
13
Q
what did Durkheim describe as a consequence of extreme individualism?
A
lead towards deviant behaviour in society
14
Q
how does Durkheim view criminal behaviour?
A
he does not immediately discount it as a malaise; instead, he sees it as a necessary and functional part of social life
15
Q
why might crime be considered necessary in society according to Durkheim?
A
crime can promote social change, reinforce social norms, and clarify moral boundaries
16
Q
what role does crime play in reinforcing social norms?
A
helps to define acceptable behavior by contrasting it with deviant actions, reinforcing what is considered right or wrong
17
Q
how can crime lead to social change?
A
it can highlight areas of social injustice or need for reform, prompting society to adapt and evolve
18
Q
what is one of the key functions of crime in society?
A
serves to bring communities together in response to deviant behavior, fostering social cohesion
19
Q
what does Durkheim mean when he says “crime is normal”?
A
suggests that crime is an inevitable part of society, and a society completely free of crime is impossible
20
Q
how does crime affirm collective sentiments in society?
A
crime helps to reinforce the shared values and norms of a community by contrasting acceptable behavior with deviant actions
21
Q
why does Durkheim believe crime is necessary for the existence of society?
A
it plays a role in maintaining social order and cohesion by prompting responses that strengthen community bonds
22
Q
what is the relationship between crime and social change according to Durkheim?
A
crime can lead to discussions about social norms and values, potentially resulting in social change and evolution.
23
Q
in what way does crime contribute to the moral framework of society?
A
by identifying and addressing deviant behaviour, society can clarify its moral boundaries and expectations.
24
Q
how do functionalists like Durkheim view the role of crime in society?
A
argue that crime is functional for society because it prompts community reactions that strengthen social bonds
25
what happens when a community reacts to crime?
the community comes together, fostering unity and solidarity among its members
26
how does crime affect moral boundaries in a community?
crime helps to define acceptable and unacceptable behaviours, reinforcing the moral boundaries of the community
27
what are the social reactions to crime that contribute to cohesion and solidarity?
defining an action as a crime and punishing the offender build cohesion and reinforce moral boundaries
28
why is crime considered beneficial for social stability?
it catalyses collective responses that clarify values and norms, contributing to the stability and continuity of society
29
according to Durkheim, how does crime bring people together in a community?
crime prompts individuals to stop each other on the street, visit each other, and gather to discuss the event, fostering a sense of unity and shared indignation
30
how does Durkheim describe the collective emotional response to a scandal or crime in a small town?
refers to it as a "unique temper" that emerges from the exchange of similar impressions and expressions of indignation, representing the public mood of the community
31
what role does the communal reaction to crime play in reinforcing social bonds?
the collective discussions and shared emotional responses to crime help strengthen social bonds, reinforce shared values, and create a sense of unity among community members
32
What does Lunden (1958) argue about crime in relation to human nature and society?
crime is not due to any imperfection of human nature or society; it is a normal part of the totality of society, similar to birth or death
33
how does social reaction to crime contribute to society, according to the structural functionalist perspective?
specific level of social reaction, defining or punishing certain actions as deviant, helps maintain social states like cohesiveness, solidarity, and moral boundaries, which are essential for social order and survival
34
what is Durkheim's view on the role of crime in society?
Durkheim sees crime as an essential part of society, but this raises concerns about the impact on the victims of crime
35
what is a limitation of the functionalist approach to crime?
there is limited empirical evidence to support functionalism, which questions its validity in explaining crime and its effects
36
what is the title of Emile Durkheim's most well-known book published in 1897?
suicide
37
what significant contribution did Durkheim make regarding the understanding of suicide?
he was one of the first theorists to provide a sociological argument about the root causes of suicide
38
how did Durkheim's explanation of suicide differ from traditional views?
while traditional explanations focused on individual factors, Durkheim argued that social context and considerations significantly influence suicide
39
during what period was Durkheim writing, and how did it impact his work?
during a time of dramatic social change due to the industrial revolution, which influenced his views on social factors affecting suicide
40
how did Durkheim define 'anomie' in 1951?
he disintegrated state of a society that lacks a body of common values or morals to effectively govern conduct
41
according to Durkheim, is anomie a property of individuals or society?
Durkheim viewed anomie as a property of society, not of individuals
42
what social conditions did Durkheim highlight in relation to anomie?
he called attention to social disorganisation and the effects of these conditions, particularly the absence of clearly defined group norms or a state of normlessness
43
what did Durkheim hypothesise about the relationship between suicide and social integration?
that suicide results from a lack of social integration and moral regulation, with the risk of suicide inversely proportional to the degree of social integration in groups
44
how did Durkheim define social integration?
social integration refers to the extent to which an individual possesses and maintains social relations with groups and communities
45
what is the significance of a common conscience in Durkheim's theory?
integrated individuals share a common conscience and are bound to the mores and demands of their group
46
how did Durkheim define regulation in the context of his theory?
regulation refers to the moral requirements and normative expectations directed from the group or collective toward the individual
47
what does it mean to be a regulated individual according to Durkheim?
behaviourally bound to group expectations
48
what happens to suicide levels when social norms weaken according to Durkheim?
levels of suicide are likely to increase when norms weaken and fail to fulfil their critical function, leading to anomie
49
how does Durkheim's hypothesis in "Suicide" relate to his theory of social cohesion?
the hypothesis follows logically from his theory of social cohesion and social isolation, suggesting that social conditions influence suicide rates
50
what does Durkheim suggest about societies with high social cohesion?
in societies with a high degree of social cohesion, strong identity, group integration, and a sense of belonging, there will be little or no suicide
51
what are Durkheim's general assumptions about the effects of anomie?
Durkheim assumes that a disorganised social condition leads to suffering and distress, where the absence of norms allows aspirations to extend beyond achievable means
52
what is egoistic suicide according to Durkheim?
occurs when the individual does not feel well integrated into society
53
what characterises altruistic suicide?
occurs when the individual is too integrated into society
54
what is fatalistic suicide?
occurs when the regulation of society is excessive
55
when is anomic suicide likely to occur?
occurs when the regulation of society is disrupted
56
what defines egoistic suicides in Durkheim's theory?
egoistic suicides are not connected with, or dependent on, their community
57
how does Durkheim describe altruistic suicide?
altruistic suicide occurs when a person is overly integrated into a group and feels that no sacrifice is too great for the good of the larger group
58
what triggers anomic suicides according to Durkheim?
anomic suicides occur when the victim cannot deal with a crisis rationally, or when their relationship with society is suddenly changed, viewing suicide as a solution to their problem
59
what causes fatalistic suicide in Durkheim's view?
fatalistic suicide is thought to be caused by excessive societal regulation that restricts the victim's freedom, leading them to see no viable future for themselves
60
how does Durkheim define anomie?
does not define anomie as just one thing; he sees it as a complex concept
61
what does Durkheim argue about the normlessness of goals?
argues that anomie is the normlessness of goals, stating that in the absence of social authority, "our capacity for feeling is in itself an insatiable and bottomless abyss"
62
what role does societal authority play in individual contentment?
society exerts authority over individuals, creating boundaries for their desires, which allows them to find contentment
63
what happens when regulation fails, according to Durkheim?
when regulation fails, society experiences dejection and pessimism, which is reflected in the curve of suicides
64
how does Durkheim relate anomie to the disembedded economy?
anomie arises when socially prescribed goals are practically unattainable, particularly in the context of a disembedded economy
65
what does Durkheim say about pursuing unattainable goals?
he states that to pursue a goal which is by definition unattainable is to "condemn oneself to a state of perpetual unhappiness"
66
how does Durkheim differentiate between undefined and limitless ends?
the ends are not really undefined, but they are by definition limitless, contributing to the sense of anomie
67
what is the basis of Durkheim's understanding of anomie?
Durkheim's understanding of anomie derives from his concern about the disruptive tendencies of fundamental features of modern, industrial society
68
what specific features of industrial society contribute to anomie?
Durkheim argues that specific features of industrial society, especially in economic activity, produce a chronic state of normative deregulation
69
what is the effect of normative deregulation on valued goals?
as a result of normative deregulation, valued goals become ill conceived, and society fails to provide normative limits on people's desires
70
What is Durkheim's professional background?
sociologist, not a criminologist
71
How have Durkheim's theories been developed?
Durkheim’s theories have been developed with a sociological perspective in mind
72
why is it important to contextualise the idea of strain?
contextualise the idea of strain through a criminological perspective
73
how can we examine the concept of strain in relation to Durkheim's theories?
achieve this by examining Merton's concept of strain
74
what is the core idea of Robert Merton’s strain theory?
the core idea is that blocked opportunities to attain successful goals generate pressure that leads to criminality or deviant behaviour
75
what are the two central elements around which society is organised, according to Merton?
society is organised around culturally defined goals and institutionalised means
76
what are culturally defined goals?
culturally defined goals are the things that the culture of the society defines as worth pursuing, such as wealth, prestige, and status
77
what are institutionalised means?
there are legitimate means available to us to seek to achieve the goals we aspire to, or the ways we do so
78
what did Merton’s strain theory aim to explain?
merton’s strain theory sought to explain why certain cultures, groups, and individuals are more prone to engage in anti-social and/or illegal behaviours
79
how do members of society receive messages about acceptable behaviours, according to Merton?
Merton asserted that members of society receive messages about what is normal, including acceptable behaviours, from societal institutions
80
how does Merton define "normal" in his theory?
normal is that which is the ‘…psychologically expectable, if not culturally approved, response to determinate social conditions.’
81
what do most people do in relation to society's rules of behaviour?
most people, most of the time, abide by society’s rules of behaviour, thereby remaining ‘normal’
82
what does Merton's strain theory suggest about the accessibility of culturally defined goals and institutionalised means?
Merton's theory points out that culturally defined goals and institutionalised means are not always accessible to all members of society
83
what is the implication of having limited or no access to culturally defined goals and means, according to Merton?
for Merton, crime is likely to occur when individuals have limited, or no, access to these goals and means
84
what does Merton say about the stress on the value of particular goals?
Merton states that ‘…there may develop a very heavy, at times, virtually exclusive, stress upon the value of particular goals, involving comparatively little concern with the institutionally prescribed means of striving towards these goals’
85
how did American institutions in the 1950s prioritise cultural goals versus means?
according to Merton, American institutions of the 1950s placed greater emphasis upon cultural goals than upon institutional or legitimate means to achieve them
86
what was the result of the overwhelming focus on cultural goals in American institutions?
resulted in an overwhelming focus on cultural goals with relatively little emphasis on the institutionalised means to achieve them
87
what happens when the emphasis on institutionalised means relaxes while goals are over-emphasised?
when the emphasis on institutionalised means relaxes and goals are over-emphasised, criminality becomes permissible
88
what did Merton assert about the resultant stress from this imbalance?
Merton asserted that this ‘resultant stress’ leads to a breakdown of the regulatory structure, causing a ‘lack of coordination’ between means and ends, which leads to anomie
89
what does Merton say about the relationship between cultural values and social structure?
Merton explains that when a system of cultural values promotes certain common symbols of success while the social structure restricts access to approved modes of acquiring these symbols for a significant part of the population, antisocial behaviour can occur on a large scale
90
how does egalitarian ideology relate to noncompeting groups in the pursuit of success?
Merton argues that our egalitarian ideology implies the existence of noncompeting groups and individuals in the pursuit of pecuniary success, even though the same success-symbols are considered desirable for all
91
what does Merton mean by class differentials in accessibility of success-symbols?
he states that while the goals are perceived to transcend class lines, the actual social organisation creates class differentials in the accessibility of these common success-symbols
92
what is the most common adaptation taken by members of society according to Merton?
conformity to both cultural goals and institutional means is the most common adaptation. This acceptance is essential for the stability of society
93
what does Merton say about the behaviour of members within a social order?
he states, “The mesh of expectancies which constitutes every social order is sustained by the modal behaviour of its members falling within the first category”
94
how does Merton define retreatism?
when individuals reject both cultural goals and institutional means. It is the least common adaptation and these individuals are often alienated from society, living on its fringes
95
what does Merton refer to as the true 'aliens' in society?
notes that those who engage in retreatism “sociologically, these constitute the true ‘aliens’”
96
what does Innovation mean in Merton's theory?
innovation refers to individuals who have embraced the cultural emphasis on achieving certain goals but have not fully internalised the institutional norms that dictate how to achieve those goals
97
how does Merton define Ritualism?
ritualism involves scaling down the ambitious cultural goals of significant financial success and rapid social mobility to a level where an individual's aspirations can be realistically satisfied
98
what does Merton's strain theory argue is responsible for criminality?
Merton's strain theory posits that a disjuncture between culturally defined goals and the means to achieve them is responsible for criminality
99
how does Merton describe culturally defined goals?
culturally defined goals comprise “a frame of aspirational reference,” representing the things that are “worth striving for.”
100
where do these culturally defined goals originate from?
these goals are institutional and arise from social institutions, including informal sources of cultural goals such as families and schools
101
what is a key feature of strain theory according to Agnew?
Strain theory is very flexible, allowing for multiple revisions over the years
102
what is the most prominent revision of strain theory?
Robert Agnew’s General Strain Theory (GST)
103
how does Agnew's General Strain Theory relate to previous theories?
Agnew's GST represents a modification and extension of earlier strain theories of crime and delinquency, including those proposed by Durkheim and Merton
104
when did Robert Agnew propose his revised version of strain theory?
Robert Agnew proposed his revisionist version of strain theory in the 1980s, specifically in 1984, 1985, 1987, and 1989
105
how did Agnew broaden strain theory?
Agnew broadened strain theory by including various sources of strain, rather than just focusing on the discrepancy between goals and means
106
what did Agnew identify as sources of strain?
Agnew argued that there are several sources of strain beyond just the disjunction between aspirations and expectations
107
In what way did Agnew expand the concept of strain theory?
Agnew expanded the concept of strain theory by recognising different varieties of strain that can lead to criminal behaviour
108
how did Agnew broaden the conception of strain?
Agnew broadened the conception of strain to include a wider array of potential stressors that can affect individuals from various socioeconomic backgrounds, not just lower-class individuals
109
what impact does Agnew's advancement of strain theory have on earlier interpretations?
Agnew’s advancement of strain theory compensates, in part, for Durkheim and Merton’s interpretations, making the theory more inclusive and applicable to a broader range of experiences
110
what does General Strain Theory (GST) argue regarding strains or stressors?
GST argues that strains or stressors increase the likelihood of negative emotions like anger and frustration, which can create pressure for corrective action, with crime being one possible response
111
how can crime serve as a response to strain according to GST?
crime may be a method for reducing strain, such as stealing money to fulfil desires, seeking revenge, or alleviating negative emotions through actions like illicit drug use
112
what new categories of strain does GST introduce?
GST introduces several new categories of strain, including the loss of positive stimuli (like a romantic partner or a friend), the presentation of negative stimuli (such as physical assaults), and new categories of goal blockage (like failing to achieve justice goals)
113
what is the first subcategory of strain according to Agnew?
strain as the disjunction between aspirations (ideal goals) and expected level of goal achievement
114
what is the second subcategory of strain?
strain as the disjunction between expectations and actual achievements
115
what is the third subcategory of strain?
strain as the disjunction between just outcomes and actual outcomes
116
what are the two types of strain identified by Agnew?
1. objective strain
2. subjective strain
117
what is objective strain?
actual, observable stressors or strains that can affect individuals, regardless of personal perceptions
118
what is subjective strain?
how individuals perceive and interpret stressors, meaning that stress can vary from person to person
119
what is "criminal coping" according to Agnew (2001)?
a term used where crime is employed as a coping strategy in response to strain
120
under what conditions are strains most likely to result in crime?
when they are seen as unjust
121
what is the second condition that makes strains likely to lead to crime?
when they are seen as high in magnitude
122
what is the third condition associated with strains leading to crime?
when they are associated with low social control
123
what is the fourth condition that creates pressure or incentive to engage in criminal coping?
when they create some pressure or incentive to engage in criminal coping
124
how did Agnew (1992) broaden the scope of strain theory?
he conceptualised strain to include not only the blockage of positively valued goals but also the loss of positive stimuli and the presence of negative stimuli as precursors to delinquency and crime
125
what does Agnew argue about the relationship between strain and delinquency?
he argues that strain theory should address broader social contexts, particularly how the larger social environment conditions this relationship
126
what are some contextual effects identified by Agnew (1999) that may increase criminal responses to strain?
"Values conducive to crime," "the presence of criminal others/groups," and "opportunities for crime."
127
what is late modernity?
a period of significant transition in society
128
how did the systems of modernity affect empowerment and social mobility?
the systems of modernity, characterised by feudal and traditional society, left little room for concepts such as empowerment and social mobility
129
what happens to tradition in late modernity?
in late modernity, society loses hold on tradition, allowing individuals to gain more freedom
130
how did space and place relate in pre-modern times according to Anthony Giddens?
in pre-modern times, space and place largely coincided and were dominated by localised activities
131
what change occurs in late modernity regarding space and place?
late modernity increasingly removes space from place by fostering relationships with 'absent' others
132
how do experiences and traditions differ between pre-modern and late modern eras?
in the pre-modern era, experiences and traditions were confined to particular localities, making them highly contextual and fragmented, unlike the broader connections in late modernity
133
what is a key characteristic of late modernity regarding choices?
late modernity is characterised by a plurality of choices but lacks guidance on which choices should be made
134
how do late-modern societies differ in terms of life-worlds?
late-modern societies contain diverse, segmented life-worlds, where individuals are surrounded by and aware of alternative ways of living
135
what role does global media play in late modernity?
global media reinforces the diversity of experiences by presenting individuals with a greater array of milieux
136
how does late modernity contrast with the Enlightenment?
unlike the reasoned certainty of the Enlightenment, the reflexive nature of late modernity is marked by doubt
137
what is a key characteristic of late modernity as described by Giddens?
individualisation is a key characteristic of late modernity, which often comes at the expense of community
138
how does Giddens view the traditional face-to-face community in late modernity?
Giddens argues that the traditional face-to-face community is being undermined by processes of detraditionalisation and individualisation
139
what happens to traditional sources of support in late modernity?
traditional sources of support are no longer available in late modernity
140
what does Giddens mean by "disembedded" social relations?
Giddens argues that 'social relations' are disembedded, meaning they are lifted out of local contexts and restructured
141
what does Beck suggest happens to individuals without the security of collectively based institutions?
individuals are forced to become the 'actor, designer, juggler, and stage director' of their own biography, identity, social networks, commitments, and convictions
142
how does Beck (1994) define the term 'individualisation'?
individualisation encapsulates the disintegration of many certainties of industrial society and the resulting need to find and invent new certainties for oneself in their absence
143
what are some roles individuals must take on in the context of individualisation?
individuals must take on roles such as actor, designer, juggler, and stage director of their own lives
144
what does the shift towards individualisation signify in late modernity?
it signifies the loss of traditional certainties and the necessity for individuals to create their own sense of identity and purpose
145
what is one consequence of the disembedding of social relations in late modern society?
there is a loss of trust within late modern society
146
what do individuals in late modernity rely on instead of local knowledges?
individuals rely on generalised expert systems rather than local knowledges
147
how does Giddens (1994) describe the interaction with 'absent others' in disembedded social relations?
he states that the disembedded characteristics of abstract systems mean constant interaction with 'absent others'—people one never sees or meets, but whose actions directly affect features of one’s own life
148
what happens if expert knowledges fail in a disembedded context?
the repercussions of such failures are far wider than the local context.
149
what characterises the reliance upon global expert systems in late modernity?
this reliance is characterised by uncertainty and a lack of trust
150
what is a key characteristic of late modernity related to self-awareness?
increased reflexivity is a key characteristic of late modernity
151
how does increased reflexivity relate to feelings of vulnerability?
increased reflexivity is associated with increased vulnerability or a heightened perception of vulnerability, leading to ontological insecurity and anxiety
152
what does Giddens (1991) suggest about the experience of living in late modernity?
he suggests that it is an uncomfortable and insecure world, influenced by both local and global hazards, and separated from the structural certainties of modernity
153
how does Beck (1992) describe decision-making in late modernity?
decision-making involves a forward-looking calculation of risk due to the perceived vulnerabilities
154
what metaphor does Giddens (1991) use to describe the experience of living in a high modernity world?
he compares it to riding a juggernaut, highlighting the unpredictable and uncontrollable nature of change in this context
155
what does Wallis (2001) mean by "reflexive knowledge" in late modernity?
reflexive knowledge means that hypotheses can be altered or abandoned based on new information
156
what is a significant consequence of living in an era cut loose from the certainties of the past?
it creates an environment filled with risk and uncertainty
157
in late modernity, why are trust and risk important?
trust and risk are essential because, without fate, every action and choice involves risk
158
what challenge does an individual face regarding identity in late modernity?
maintaining a sense of identity or ontological security becomes difficult due to constant change and uncertainty
159
how does Wallis (2001) describe the atmosphere of late modernity?
it is characterised by uncertainty and the possibility for choice and action, emphasising the importance of managing risk
160
what is ontological insecurity in the context of late modernity?
ontological insecurity refers to feelings of instability and uncertainty regarding one's self-identity and environment, caused by the conditions of late modernity
161
how does Giddens (1990) define ontological security?
ontological security is the confidence individuals have in the continuity of their self-identity and the constancy of their surrounding social and material environments
162
what factors foster ontological security?
ontological security relies on routine, a stable sense of self-identity, and reflexive awareness about one's actions and motivations
163
what characterises a person with ontological security?
an ontologically secure person has a stable and unquestioned sense of self and understands their place in the world relative to others and their environment
164
what is the emotional experience when someone faces ontological insecurity?
when experiencing ontological insecurity, individuals feel the opposite of stability, leading to confusion and uncertainty about their identity and place in the world
165
what are the key characteristics of late modernity?
key characteristics include globalisation, industrialisation, and rapid technological advancements
166
how does Giddens (1990) define globalisation?
globalisation is defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations that link distant localities, where local events are influenced by far-off occurrences and vice versa
167
why is it a mistake to view globalisation solely in economic terms?
Giddens argues that globalisation is fundamentally social, cultural, and political, not just economic, highlighting its broader impacts on society
168
how does globalisation affect personal lives?
globalisation influences not only global or distant events but also intimate and personal aspects of individuals' lives, making it an 'in here' phenomenon as well
169
why is late modernity used to examine strain?
late modernity is used to examine strain because it reflects the cultural and economic changes that have occurred, which impact social dynamics and individual experiences
170
what does Keith Hayward argue about early strain models?
Hayward suggests that theorists have been hesitant to update early strain models considering the cultural and economic changes associated with late modernity
171
how have rapid changes in late modern society contributed to strain?
the rapid social changes in late modernity create new pressures and challenges for individuals, leading to feelings of strain and instability
172
in what areas does strain particularly manifest in late modernity?
strain is particularly evident in rural areas during the late modern period, where traditional structures may be disrupted by modernisation
