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introduction to criminology > critical criminology > Flashcards

critical criminology Flashcards

1
Q

what is critical criminology?

A

umbrella term for theories and perspectives that challenge the core assumptions of mainstream criminology and provide alternative approaches to understanding crime and its control.

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2
Q

what is mainstream criminology?

A

establishment, administrative, managerial, correctional, and positivistic criminology. It tends to be narrow, focusing on individual offenders, street crime, and social engineering on behalf of the state

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3
Q

what do critical criminological perspectives do?

A

reject the idea of scientific objectivity in mainstream criminology, often using interpretive and qualitative methods. They also examine the unequal distribution of power and resources in society

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4
Q

what 3 key publications emerged in 1973 that influenced critical criminology?

A
  1. Cohen and Young’s “Manufacture of the News,”
  2. Taylor, Walton, and Young’s “New Criminology,”
  3. Taylor and Taylor’s “Politics and Deviance.”
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5
Q

what was the purpose of the ‘European Group for the Study of Deviance and Social Control’ conference in 1973?

A

the conference aimed to critique dominant criminological traditions and promote a ‘full social theory of deviance.’

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6
Q

what approach did Taylor et al. seek to synthesise in their work?

A

aimed to combine an interactionist approach to deviancy with a structural approach grounded in political economy and class relations

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7
Q

wat do critical criminologists prioritise in their analyses?

A

the analysis of unequal power, exposing vastly different worlds associated with various types of crime

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8
Q

what difference do critical criminologists highlight between street crime and corporate crime?

A

highlight the vastly different worlds associated with street crime versus corporate crime, as discussed by Chambliss (1975) and Christie (1977)

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9
Q

how does political economy influence crime according to critical criminologists?

A

political economy determines much about how crimes are defined and prosecuted, as noted by Chambliss (1975)

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10
Q

what power does the state have regarding experiences of crime?

A

the state has the power to ‘steal’ our experiences of crime, as explained by Christie (1977)

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11
Q

what did Christie (1993) say about crime control in Western societies?

A

Christie noted that a vast industry of crime control emerged in Western societies

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12
Q

how do critical criminologists view social injury?

A

they argue that social injury is analogous to serious injury, and real people suffer real harms even when inflicted by powerful entities, as stated by Michalowski (1985)

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13
Q

what is the danger of ‘trusted entities’ according to critical criminologists?

A

‘Trusted entities’ can be far more dangerous than stereotypical criminals, as highlighted by Friedrichs (1996)

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14
Q

what do critical criminologists identify in relation to mainstream criminology?

A

identify glaring gaps in mainstream criminology that they are responding to by covering various areas that mainstream criminology overlooks

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15
Q

what does the term ‘critical criminology’ encompass?

A

critical criminology is an overarching name for various types of criminologies and criminological perspectives

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16
Q

what are 3 types of critical criminologists?

A
  1. left realism and left idealism
  2. feminist criminology
  3. cultural criminology
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17
Q

when did left realism emerge?

A

mid-1800s in the US and UK

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18
Q

who are the 3 key figures associated with the development of Left Realism?

A
  1. Jock Young
  2. Tony Platt
  3. iam Taylor
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19
Q

what formal publication is associated with Left Realism?

A

left Realism was formally expressed in the publication “What is to Be Done about Law and Order?” by Lea and Young in 1984

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20
Q

where did Left Realism begin?

A

left Realism started in Islington, London

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21
Q

what prompted the development of Left Realism according to Jock Young?

A

politicians approached Jock Young and John Lea, asking what they would do about crime while they were in power during a time of strong leftist movements in cities, despite the neoliberal policies of the central government under Thatcher

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22
Q

how did the political climate influence Left Realism?

A

the political climate was very policy-driven and politically pushed, with a strong move to the left in cities like London, Birmingham, and Liverpool, prompting criminologists to address crime more actively

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23
Q

what is a key perspective of Left Realism according to Jock Young?

A

left Realism takes crime seriously and highlights the awareness of people living in inner cities and working-class life, focusing on the problems of crime in those communities

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24
Q

what criticism does Jock Young express about those outside of working-class communities?

A

Jock Young expresses irritation towards people living on isolated campuses who romanticise crime, suggesting they overlook the real issues faced by working-class individuals dealing with crime, such as prostitution and drug dealing

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25
Q

how does Left Realism view the relationship between crime and working-class life?

A

Left Realism emphasises that crime should be understood in the context of working-class life and the specific challenges faced by these communities, rather than being idealised or misunderstood by outsiders

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26
Q

what does the approach mentioned by Currie link serious crime to?

A

it links variations in serious crime to variations in key structural conditions and policies

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27
Q

what distinguishes the approach described by Currie?

A

it is distinguished by its activist and ameliorative implications

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28
Q

how did left realists view critical criminology according to the text?

A

left realists argued that critical criminology had become consumed by the state’s ideological manipulation through the rhetoric of law and order

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29
Q

what impact did crime have on working-class people, according to left realists?

A

left realists believed that crime was a serious issue that had a destructive impact on working-class people

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30
Q

what do left realists argue about the British Crime Survey?

A

left realists argue that the British Crime Survey provides an average risk rate that overlooks variations in crime between different areas

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31
Q

what conclusion do left realists draw regarding people’s fear of crime?

A

they conclude that people’s fear of crime is ‘irrational’ due to the survey’s generalised findings

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32
Q

despite their critique, what do left realists believe about the British Crime Survey?

A

left realists still believe that the British Crime Survey is a crucial research tool for understanding crime and victimisation

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33
Q

what type of surveys did left realists conduct to critique the British Crime Survey?

A

they conducted much smaller, local-level victimisation surveys in areas such as Islington, Hammersmith and Fulham, Broadwater Farm, and Merseyside

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34
Q

what correlation did Jock Young highlight regarding social conditions and crime?

A

Jock Young stated that areas with high infant mortality, bad housing, unemployment, and poor nutrition correspond to areas of high criminal victimisation

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35
Q

according to Young, who suffers the most from crime?

A

Young argued that people who have the least power socially suffer most from crime

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36
Q

what did criminologists expose regarding the criminal law and policing?

A

they exposed the political use of criminal law and policing against organised labour in the context of class conflict during the 1970s and 1980s

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37
Q

how did left realists respond to the political right’s stance on crime?

A

left realists sought to respond to the political right’s hijacking of the ‘law and order’ issue

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38
Q

what significant focus did left realism introduce in criminology?

A

left realism was one of the first perspectives to focus on ‘the victim’ in the context of crime and victimisation

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39
Q

what was the goal of left realists in developing their approach to crime?

A

left realists attempted to develop an empirically based picture of local crime and its impact

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40
Q

what aspect of crime did left realists focus on in their explanations?

A

they focused on causal explanations of crime

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41
Q

what relationships did left realists explore in their studies?

A

they explored the relationship between offenders, victims, and both formal and informal controls

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42
Q

what type of policies did left realists aim to develop?

A

they attempted to develop realistic policies aimed at reducing the frequency and impact of victimisation

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43
Q

what do left realists argue about left idealists’ view of working-class criminals?

A

left realists argue that left idealists romanticise working-class criminals

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44
Q

how do left idealists reportedly view the impact of crime on working-class communities?

A

left idealists are said to minimise the effect of crime on working-class communities and idealise the proletariat criminal

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45
Q

what accusations are made against left idealists regarding their portrayal of crime?

A

they are accused of downplaying the level and consequences of crime as irrational fears or moral panics, while simplistically portraying criminal offenders as innocent victims of a corrupt state and criminal justice system

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46
Q

what is the primary argument of feminists regarding gender dynamics in society?

A

from a feminist perspective, it is argued that men are the dominant group in society

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47
Q

how do men influence the rules and laws in society according to feminist theory?

A

men make and enforce the rules to the detriment of women

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48
Q

how has feminism impacted criminology?

A

feminism has critiqued traditional explanations of crime and criminal behaviour, offering alternative perspectives that focus on gender dynamics

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49
Q

what do feminist theories provide in the context of women’s oppression?

A

feminist theories provide a collection of different theoretical perspectives, each explaining the oppression of women in various ways

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50
Q

why is there not one specific feminist explanation of female crime?

A

there isn’t one specific feminist explanation because women’s experiences are shaped by intersecting factors like race, class, and sexuality, leading to multiple perspectives

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51
Q

what term do feminists reject to describe women in a male-dominated society, and what do they prefer instead?

A

feminists reject the term “victim” and prefer the more empowering term “survivor,” emphasising resilience and agency

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52
Q

what is the focus of the first wave of feminism?

A

the first wave emphasised equality within rational individual rights

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53
Q

what characterised the first wave of feminism in the UK?

A

the first wave was characterised by the suffrage movement

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54
Q

when did the first wave of feminism occur?

A

the first wave of feminism took place from the 1860s to the early 1900s

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55
Q

what were the key concerns of first wave feminists?

A

key concerns included education, employment, marriage laws, and the plight of middle-class single women

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56
Q

when did the second wave of feminism emerge?

A

the second wave emerged in the 1960s and continued into the 1990s

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57
Q

what significant movement was associated with the second wave of feminism?

A

the emergence of the women’s liberation movement was a key aspect of the second wave

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58
Q

what type of movements accompanied the second wave of feminism?

A

a plethora of student movements accompanied the second wave

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59
Q

what did second wave feminists demand?

A

they demanded the wholesale transformation of society

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60
Q

when did the third wave of feminism begin?

A

mid-1990s

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61
Q

who primarily powered the third wave of feminism?

A

the third wave was powered by young middle-class women

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62
Q

how does the third wave relate to the second wave?

A

the third wave is an expansion of second wave work, focusing on new directions

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63
Q

what was a key feeling among third wave feminists regarding the second wave?

A

many felt that second wave feminism did not meet the needs of all women

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64
Q

what groups emerged as a result of the third wave?

A

black, Hispanic, and Third World feminists emerged with the goal of speaking for those who have long been voiceless

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65
Q

what are 4 variants of feminism?

A
  1. liberal feminism
  2. radical feminism
  3. marxist feminism
  4. socialist feminism
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66
Q

how has feminism impacted criminology?

A

feminism in criminology has challenged traditionally male-dominated perspectives

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67
Q

what argument has been proposed regarding theoretical perspectives in criminology?

A

there have been arguments for the integration of women into theoretical perspectives

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68
Q

what new developments have emerged in relation to women’s lives?

A

the development of new approaches related to the lives of women has been proposed

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69
Q

what new opportunities for research have arisen due to feminist thought?

A

new areas of research have been opened up regarding visibility in criminology

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70
Q

how is criminology described in terms of gender?

A

criminology is described as “the most masculine of all the social sciences,” characterised by a macho attitude

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71
Q

what is a significant characteristic of feminist work in criminology?

A

a significant characteristic is the critique of mainstream male (‘malestream’) criminology

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72
Q

what main concern do feminist criminologists address?

A

the main concern is the intellectual sexism in theories of female crime and in the criminal justice system (CJS)

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73
Q

what did Bertrand, Heidensohn, and Klein highlight regarding female criminality?

A

they highlighted the relative neglect of women in the study of crime and the stereotyped distortions imposed on females in studies that did address the issue

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74
Q

what does Smart’s “Women, Crime and Criminology” (1977) highlight about traditional criminology?

A

Smart highlights the failure of much of traditional criminology to recognise women

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75
Q

what issue does Smart address regarding studies that consider female criminality?

A

Smart addresses the sexual stereotypes imposed on women in those studies that do consider female criminality

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76
Q

what two major issues did criminologists fail to consider regarding female criminality until the late 20th century?

A
  1. The ‘problem of generalisability’ - whether theories of male criminality apply to female criminality
  2. The ‘gender ratio’ question - why women commit less crime than men
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77
Q

what did Leonard (1983) argue about traditional criminology?

A

Leonard argued that criminology was sexist, focusing primarily on men and ignoring a comparative analysis of women

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78
Q

what has been a distinguishing feature of explanations of female criminal behaviour?

A

an enduring distinguishing feature has been the emphasis on biological variants of ‘the predestined actor model’

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79
Q

what did Heidensohn (1994) say about the development of criminology in relation to female crime?

A

Heidensohn stated that while criminology moved on from a strict adherence to biological explanations, female crime remained cut off from this development

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80
Q

how were women’s emotions and behaviours viewed in relation to biological factors?

A

women’s emotions, reliability, maturity, and deviance were often seen as dependent on hormonal and reproductive systems

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81
Q

what link did Dalton (1961) suggest regarding female offending?

A

Dalton suggested a link between hormonal changes during pregnancy and menstruation and female offending

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82
Q

what does Merton’s Strain Theory suggest about individuals without legitimate means?

A

Merton’s Strain Theory suggests that individuals who lack legitimate means to achieve their desires may turn to crime out of frustration

83
Q

how does Eileen Leonard (1983) adapt Merton’s Strain Theory for women?

A

Leonard adapts the theory by highlighting that women are socialised into lower cultural goals, such as marriage and children, rather than the financial success typically associated with men

84
Q

what explanation does Leonard provide for the lower crime rate among women?

A

Leonard suggests that women’s lower aspirations and more culturally accessible goals could help explain the lower crime rate among women compared to men

85
Q

what do labelling theories focus on in criminology?

A

labelling theories examine why society labels some individuals as criminal while others are not

86
Q

who suffers the detrimental effects of labelling according to labelling theories?

A

the powerless individuals in society suffer the detrimental effects of labelling

87
Q

what gap did Gregory (1986) identify in labelling theories regarding women?

A

Gregory pointed out that labelling theories fail to explain why powerless women are less involved in crime than powerless men

88
Q

what criticism did Heidensohn (1985) make about labelling theorists?

A

Heidensohn criticised labelling theorists for only finding male deviants interesting, neglecting the experiences of women

89
Q

what is a key criticism of radical criminology concerning women?

A

radical criminology challenges traditional explanations of crime but pays very little attention to women, making it difficult to apply this perspective to understanding women and crime

90
Q

what did Taylor, Walton, and Young’s (1973) “The New Criminology” fail to address?

A

“The New Criminology” contains no discussion about women, highlighting a significant gap in radical criminological discourse

91
Q

how do Gelsthorpe and Morris (1988) summarise the feminist critique of traditional criminology?

A

they argue that traditional explanations of crime are “deformed by the almost unrelieved focus on the criminality of males & the invisibility or, at best, marginalisation of women & girls.”

92
Q

how have some writers modified control theory to understand female criminality?

A

they have adapted Hirschi’s original control theory to apply it to the situation of women, focusing on the unique constraints they face

93
Q

what does Heidensohn (1985) argue about the number of women criminals?

A

Heidensohn argues that the reason there are so few women criminals is due to formal and informal controls that constrain them within a male-dominated society

94
Q

what should be examined to understand the transmission of gender inequality and control of women?

A

it is important to look at the practical and ideological constraints imposed by family life to understand how these factors influence women’s behaviour and criminality

95
Q

what practices and policies affect women’s involvement in activities outside the home?

A

the very practices and policies that limit women’s involvement in outside activities propel them back into the family, where they are subject to greater control

96
Q

how does Heidensohn describe women’s role in controlling behaviour within the home?

A

Heidensohn observes that while women can be seen as responsible for the behaviour of others, they act as agents of male authority when carrying out that control function

97
Q

give an example of how women act as agents of control

A

a mother reprimanding her child by saying, “wait until your father gets home,” illustrating how women enforce male authority

98
Q

in what ways are women controlled both at home and outside?

A

while women may act as agents of control on behalf of men, they themselves are controlled by societal expectations and norms both within the home and in public spaces

99
Q

what is the sexual division of labor related to?

A

the sexual division of labor is related to the notion of separate spheres—public for men and private for women

100
Q

what is expected of women in the context of the private sphere?

A

women are expected to function chiefly within the ‘private’ sphere of the home, which contributes to the oppression they experience

101
Q

what vulnerability do women face within the home?

A

within the home, women are vulnerable to isolation and the negative consequences that arise from it

102
Q

how does male dominance affect women’s confidence and self-esteem?

A

male dominance may result in the subtle undermining of a woman’s confidence and self-esteem

103
Q

what are some consequences of male dominance according to Dobash and Dobash (1980)?

A

male dominance may lead to overt violence and bodily harm towards women

104
Q

what issues do housebound, isolated, and dependent wives face according to Brown and Harris (1978)?

A

these wives often become victims of neurosis and depression due to their circumstances

105
Q

what does paid employment for women often entail?

A

paid employment for women often means subjection to male power and supervision

106
Q

what does Heidensohn argue about the socialisation and conditions of women’s existence?

A

Heidensohn argues that the socialisation and conditions of women’s existence effectively control them

107
Q

what area has feminism influenced in theoretical criminology?

A

feminism has particularly influenced the focus on crimes committed against women by men

108
Q

what are the two areas most frequently studied in feminist criminology?

A

the two areas most frequently studied are rape and domestic violence

109
Q

what is the goal of feminist criminology in studying crimes against women?

A

the goal is to shed light on systemic inequalities and advocate for changes in policy and societal perceptions regarding violence against women

110
Q

what has feminism contributed to the understanding of female criminality?

A

there has been the development of different explanations of female criminality and conformity

111
Q

what recognition has been made regarding women’s experiences in relation to crime?

A

there has been recognition of a different female ‘experience’ of crime, victimisation, and the criminal justice system (CJS)

112
Q

how has feminism influenced left realism in criminology?

A

feminism has been influential in the development of left realism, particularly through the emphasis on victim studies

113
Q

what is cultural criminology?

A

cultural criminology examines the relationship between culture and crime, exploring how cultural meanings and practices influence criminal behaviour and societal responses

114
Q

what does the quote by Young and Brotherton suggest about the relationship between the street and the screen?

A

the quote suggests that the street scripts the screen and vice versa, blurring the line between the real and the virtual, with no linear sequence

115
Q

when did cultural criminology emerge as a discipline?

A

cultural criminology emerged in the 1990s as a young discipline, coinciding with the late modern period

116
Q

when did cultural criminology emerge as a discipline?

A

cultural criminology is a relatively young discipline that emerged in the mid-1990s

117
Q

who are 3 key authors associated with cultural criminology?

A

1.Ferrell
2.Hayward
3. Young

118
Q

what does cultural criminology emphasise regarding popular culture?

A

cultural criminology emphasises the increasing analytic attention that criminologists give to popular culture and mass media constructions of crime and crime control

119
Q

how is cultural criminology viewed within the field of criminology?

A

cultural criminology highlights the emergence of media and cultural inquiry as a distinct domain within criminology, with collections exploring the relationship between media, culture, and crime

120
Q

what characterises late modernity in terms of choices?

A

late modernity is characterised by a plurality of choices but lacks guidance on which choices should be made

121
Q

how do late-modern societies differ in terms of life-worlds?

A

late-modern societies contain diverse, segmented life-worlds, where individuals are surrounded by and aware of alternative ways of living

122
Q

what modernity?

A

global media reinforces the diversity of choices by presenting individuals with an even greater array of milieux (environments or contexts)

123
Q

how does late modernity contrast with the Enlightenment?

A

unlike the reasoned certainty of the Enlightenment, late modernity is marked by a reflexive nature characterised by doubt

124
Q

what happens to space and time in late modernity?

A

in late modernity, space and time compress under the forces of economic and cultural globalisation, leading to a disembeddedness and dislocation for many individuals

125
Q

how do different types of media function in late modernity?

A

mass media, new media, and alternative media proliferate, creating a tangled web of constant, virtual interconnection

126
Q

what happens to certainties in late modernity?

A

the certainties of just reward and confident identity fade away or re-present themselves chaotically

127
Q

what societal issues arise in late modernity?

A

ontological insecurity is prevalent, and stereotypes circulate within the mediated social structure, leading to identity politics taking centre stage and class conflicts transforming into ‘culture wars’ against the poor and disenfranchised

128
Q

what does Beck (1994) suggest about individual roles in late modernity?

A

individuals become the ‘actor, designer, juggler, and stage director’ of their own biography, identity, social networks, commitments, and convictions due to the lack of security from collectively based institutions

129
Q

what term does Beck use to describe the shift towards personal responsibility in late modernity?

A

Beck terms this shift ‘individualisation,’ which reflects the disintegration of certainties from industrial society and the need for individuals to invent new certainties for themselves

130
Q

how does late modernity influence perceptions of crime?

A

there is an increase in the fear of crime as a result of late modern conditions, where crime becomes more globalised, visible, and individuals experience greater ontological insecurity

131
Q

how does cultural criminology define the relationship between crime and culture?

A

it emphasises the meanings that crime and control carry, highlighting their interaction and the evolving definitions of what is considered criminal

132
Q

what key concepts are central to cultural criminology?

A

key concepts include moral entrepreneurship, moral innovation, transgressions, and the continuous generation of meaning around societal rules and interactions

133
Q

what do cultural criminologists believe is essential for studying crime?

A

they believe it requires a journey into the spectacle and carnival of crime, exploring the dynamic interplay of images created by various actors

134
Q

how is the study of crime described by cultural criminologists?

A

it is likened to a walk down an infinite hall of mirrors, where images from criminals, subcultures, control agents, media, and audiences reflect and influence each other

135
Q

what concepts do cultural criminologists explore in relation to crime and its control?

A

they examine networks of connections, feedback loops, and media interconnections that shape the constructions of crime and crime control

136
Q

how has crime changed in relation to commodification?

A

crme has become commodified, leading to a collapse of the distinction between carnival and non-carnival, allowing crime to be experienced as a form of pleasure

137
Q

what role does media play in the commodification of crime?

A

media enables us to consume and experience criminal acts as pleasurable experiences, turning crime into a commodity

138
Q

what happens when punishment is viewed as a desirable outcome?

A

when punishment is seen as a badge of honour, it challenges law and lawmakers, making them impotent in maintaining law and order, as the carnivalesque infiltrates everyday life

139
Q

how is crime perceived in contemporary society?

A

crime is a constant presence in our lives, with continuous exposure to images of crime through various media channels

140
Q

what impact do 24-hour news channels and social media have on our perception of crime?

A

they make images of crime and our interactions with these mediated representations unavoidable, increasing our awareness and engagement with crime

141
Q

what does the quote about mediated anti-crime campaigns suggest?

A

it highlights a complex interplay where imagined crime waves, constructed panics, and subcultures interact within a continuous cycle of meaning, resembling a Möbius strip that connects culture and everyday life

142
Q

how do images of crime and crime control compare to actual crime?

A

they have become as ‘real’ as crime and criminal justice, influencing social life and producing consequences

143
Q

what dimensions of social life do these images affect?

A

they shape attitudes and policies, define the effects of crime and justice, and generate feelings of fear, avoidance, and pleasure

144
Q

how do images of crime alter lives?

A

they can significantly impact the lives of those involved, including victims, offenders, and community members

145
Q

what role does cultural criminology play in the study of crime?

A

cultural criminology acts as a “janitorial service,” reclaiming cultural artefacts previously dismissed by orthodox criminology for serious analysis

146
Q

what types of cultural phenomena were traditionally ignored by orthodox criminology?

A

comic books, television programs, football matches, graffiti walls, crime scene photographs, and public memorials were deemed unworthy of serious inquiry

147
Q

how do cultural criminologists view these cultural artefacts?

A

they see them as integral to understanding how crime and crime control acquire collective meaning, positioning these phenomena at the heart of criminological inquiry

148
Q

what do modern media forms suggest about understanding the social world?

A

they indicate that the social world cannot be grasped directly and must be mediated into a world of immediacy, making all acts instant and devoid of memory

149
Q

what is the significance of media immediacy in late modernity?

A

its not just the immediacy of media that affects us, but also the sheer volume of media we consume

150
Q

how does the consumption of media impact our perception of crime and society?

A

the overwhelming amount of media influences our understanding and interpretation of social events, including crime, shaping our collective memory and responses

151
Q

what happens to popular memory due to the volume of media we consume?

A

popular memory is eradicated, making it difficult to comprehend the sheer amount of media

152
Q

how has the mediation of crime changed in contemporary society?

A

crime is no longer mediated in the same way as it has been in the past; now, it’s consumed differently by audiences

153
Q

what is the relationship between media consumption and the public’s understanding of crime?

A

society consumes information about crime through media, forming a popular conception of crime that becomes part of popular, ahistorical knowledge. Crime transforms into a commodity, leaving behind only excitement and desire

154
Q

what do postmodernists focus on instead of why people commit crimes?

A

they analyse why certain actions are considered crimes and why some individuals are labeled as criminals

155
Q

what is a common concern among various postmodern perspectives?

A

they are all concerned with the role of language in shaping our understanding of the world, rather than viewing language as a neutral reflection

156
Q

how do dominant societal structures influence language according to postmodern criminology?

A

the dominant structures influence the language people use, leading to the idea that truth is not absolute but partial and reflective of power structures

157
Q

why is language considered integral in the field of criminology?

A

language is fundamental to our identity and interactions, making it crucial for understanding criminological concepts and practices

158
Q

what question arises regarding the language we use in criminology?

A

what implicit values and hidden assumptions are embedded in the language we use to express our thoughts?

159
Q

what do postmodernists question about the values represented in language?

A

they question whose values and assumptions are given preferred meaning or special consideration, and whose are ignored or silenced in our communication

160
Q

what is a clear example of the problem of language in a courtroom setting?

A

the experience of an indigent defendant representing himself, highlighting issues of specialised meaning and values in legal language

161
Q

what skills might a self-representing defendant, or ‘jailhouse lawyer,’ acquire?

A

they may learn about the trial process, filing motions, rules of evidence, and examining witnesses, mastering legal logic and terminology despite lacking formal education

162
Q

what do postmodernists question about the victory of a self-representing defendant?

A

they question the linguistic conditions under which this victory occurs, suggesting that the context and language used may affect the fairness and meaning of the outcome

163
Q

how does language function within the criminal justice system (CJS)?

A

language can empower certain actors, like law enforcement, while disadvantaging those on the receiving end of the CJS

164
Q

what is a specific example of language use in policing that creates barriers?

A

the use of acronyms and specialised terminology that officers communicate over radios, which the public often cannot understand

165
Q

what are other language systems that affect us similarly to policing?

A

language systems in fields such as computers, sports, and advertising rely on specialised words and phrases that convey meanings not easily accessible to everyone

166
Q

what is visual criminology?

A

visual criminology is an emerging field that explores the intersection of media, violence, and societal relevance, indicating a new era in criminological study

167
Q

how do traditional criminologists view the relationship between media and crime?

A

traditional criminologists see media and crime as two separate entities that do not interact or influence each other

168
Q

what perspective do cultural and visual criminologists have on media and crime?

A

cultural and visual criminologists view media and crime as interconnected, flowing into each other, often illustrated by the concept of a feedback loop

169
Q

what does Carrabine (2012) say about the analysis of images in visual criminology?

A

Carrabine notes that the analysis of the image required by visual criminology is “long overdue” but also acknowledges that it is “no easy task.”

170
Q

what trend has the discipline of criminology as a whole followed regarding social structures and identities?

A

the discipline has tended towards interpretive approaches that view social structures, institutions, identities, and relations as externalised and externalisable entities

171
Q

what is a potential risk of focusing on interpretive approaches in criminology?

A

there is a risk that such approaches may dominate ways of thinking about the image, potentially oversimplifying complex visual narratives

172
Q

what does visual criminology focus on?

A

visual criminology focuses on the relationship between representations and images of crime and control and their connection to power

173
Q

how is visual criminology linked to critical criminology?

A

visual criminology links to critical criminology by examining how visual representations can influence societal perceptions of crime and power dynamics

174
Q

what are the focal points of visual criminology?

A

the focal points include the structure and operations of visual regimes, their coercive and normalising effects, and the contestations against them

175
Q

what has led to the need for criminology to rethink its relations with the power of spectacle?

A

the unprecedented proliferation of images, sites of production, and modes of analysis, as images of crime, harm, and punishment spread across old and new media

176
Q

acording to Carrabine (2012), what is a growing recognition in criminology?

A

there is a growing recognition that criminology needs to rethink its relations with the ascendant power of spectacle due to the proliferation of images

177
Q

how does the visual serve in the context of control?

A

the visual is a powerful means to map the production of control, including policing, prisons, surveillance, and the counterpoints to these systems

178
Q

what themes does visual criminology explore regarding crime and resistance?

A

it explores the production of transgression and resistance against old and new categories of criminalisation, as well as the historical resurgence of insurgencies, justice campaigns, social movements, and uprisings

179
Q

who do visual criminologists often engage with in their work?

A

visual criminologists often engage with the work of photojournalists and photo-documentary

180
Q

what types of visual mediums are considered in visual criminology?

A

visual criminology considers social media, architecture, performance art, advertising, film, conceptual art, mixed media, surveillance, social documentary, graffiti, urban aesthetics, and exhibitions

181
Q

why is the study of visual criminology important?

A

it helps to analyse how images shape our understanding of crime and justice, especially in the context of the increasing presence of visual media in society

182
Q

what popularised social documentary photography?

A

social documentary photography was popularised by the U.S. Farm Security Administration (FSA), which chronicled the plight of poor farmers from 1935 to 1944

183
Q

what was the main task of the FSA?

A

the FSA was tasked with fighting rural poverty and communicating the urgency of rehabilitating rural areas

184
Q

how many images did the FSA’s photography project yield?

A

the FSA’s photography project yielded about 80,000 images

185
Q

name some notable photographers involved with the FSA.

A

notable photographers included Dorothea Lange, Walker Evans, Russell Lee, Gordon Parks, and Arthur Rothstein

186
Q

who was Lewis Hine

A

Lewis Hine was an investigative photographer for the National Child Labour Committee who believed that images of child labor would compel citizens to demand change

187
Q

how did Lewis Hine gain access to mills and factories?

A

Hine conned his way into mills and factories from Massachusetts to South Carolina by posing as a Bible seller, insurance agent, or industrial photographer

188
Q

what was the scale of child labor Hine aimed to document?

A

Hine aimed to document the plight of nearly 2 million children involved in labor

189
Q

what techniques did Hine use to document child labor?

A

Hine carted around a large-format camera and used a hidden notebook to jot down information while recording children labouring in meatpacking houses, coal mines, and canneries

190
Q

how has photography affected the divide between public and private worlds?

A

since the birth of the camera, photography has been accused of blurring the lines between public and private selves, transforming the act of looking and giving rise to concepts like the society of spectacle and the politics of representation

191
Q

what role does photography play in constructing the modern criminal subject?

A

photography is vital in shaping perceptions of criminality and intersects with themes of celebrity, desire, fame, trauma, and voyeurism, influencing social practices in significant ways

192
Q

besides identifying criminals, how else is photography used in criminology?

A

photographs are used to establish evidence, construct crime scenes, and serve as techniques of state surveillance

193
Q

what was the initial purpose of mugshot photographs used by police in the late 1800s?

A

mugshot photographs served as tools of representation, visually recording the identity of individuals brought into the police station

194
Q

how did the relationship between identity and visual representation change by the late twentieth century?

A

by the late twentieth century, the image became increasingly used for data collection, capturing biometric information such as faces and fingerprints from a wider range of individuals, not just known criminals

195
Q

what types of locations now utilise cameras for data collection beyond police stations?

A

cameras are now used at crime scenes, border crossings, immigration offices, and other locations to capture biometric data

196
Q

in the context of mugshots, what preceded visual representation in the late 1800s?

A

in nearly all cases, identity preceded visual representation, meaning that a person’s identity was established before their image was recorded

197
Q

what were rogue’s galleries?

A

rogue’s galleries were developed in the 1800s as a means to facilitate the identification and monitoring of criminals, serving as a visual reference for police

198
Q

how did law enforcement agencies utilize photography in the 1800s?

A

law enforcement agencies quickly recognised the potential of photography to document criminals, with the French police taking daguerreotypes of prisoners as early as 1841

199
Q

when did British police forces start using civilian photographers?

A

british police forces began employing civilian photographers from the 1840s onwards to document criminal activity

200
Q

which U.S. police department was among the first to use daguerreotypes of prisoners?

A

the San Francisco Police Department was among the first in the United States to daguerreotype prisoners in 1854

201
Q

what is the lasting impact of being labeled a criminal through an image?

A

once someone is labeled and identified as a criminal through an image, this perception does not rescind, meaning they are often viewed as a criminal regardless of later evidence or trials

202
Q

how does the association of a portrait with criminals affect public perception?

A

the association of a portrait with those considered criminals creates an effect of semantic osmosis, where the individual is linked to others deemed criminal, leading to a lasting stigma

203
Q

what is the inverse meaning of a rogues’ gallery compared to a gallery of illustrious figures?

A

while a gallery of illustrious figures celebrates individuals, a rogues’ gallery carries an inverse meaning; once included, the individual is perpetually regarded as a criminal, even if proven innocent later

204
Q

what does the term “semantic osmosis” refer to in the context of rogue’s galleries?

A

semantic osmosis refers to the process by which the negative connotations of being in a rogues’ gallery transfer to the individual, influencing how they are perceived by society

introduction to criminology (9 decks)

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