Social developments 1846-1885 Flashcards
1
Q
What two important works were published in 1859?
A
On the Origin of Species
Samuel Smiles’ ‘Self Help’
2
Q
When did the first Barnardo’s Home open in East London?
A
1867
3
Q
When was the Torrens Act passed
A
1868
4
Q
When was Bazalgette’s sewage system for London completed
A
1870
5
Q
When was the Bank Holiday Act introduced?
A
1871
6
Q
When was the Artisans’ Dwelling Act introduced
A
1875
7
Q
When did William Booth found the Salvation Army?
A
1878
8
Q
What does HCG Matthew say about working class living standards during this time
A
By the mid 19th century urbanisation had had profound social consequences for all classes. Most industrial workers left nothing behind aside from the products of their labour. Complex and varied patterns of life with religion and regionalism playing an important part. The standard of living if some of the working class began to increase quite fast. A significant number began to enjoy leisure time. Some money was available for more of the essentials of food, housing and clothing. Strikingly this rise coincided with a fall not a rise in birth rate. The extra cash was not absorbed by extra children. Unprecedented development which contradicted the thoughts of political economists that the labouring classes were condemned to never achieving above subsistence leves because any rise in wages would be absorbed by extra children. This development opened the way to the relative prosperity of the working class
9
Q
What did mid 19th century census returns reveal about the extent of urbanisation and how did this continue to develop
A
That about half of Britain’s pop had become town dwellers. The escalation of economic progress and pop growth that followed changed the balance so that by 1871, 65% of the pop lived and worked in urban areas
10
Q
Compare the pace of change in town and contryside
A
Much quicker in the towns
11
Q
What class had developed as a result of industrialisation
A
A large prosperous middle class
12
Q
What helped create the towns
A
Economic progress
13
Q
Describe the social structure in the countryside at this time
A
Landowners and farmers
Tenant farmers
Agricultural labourers
Small number of professionals and tradesmen
The social structure was much the same as before, but many areas were adversely affected by rural depopulation
14
Q
Who was Joseph Bazalgette
A
Chief Engineer on London’s Metropolitan Board of Works and was primarily responsible for the creation of the extensive network of sewers under London’s streets. One of the greatest contributions to improving the health of London’s poor. Most of it remains in use today. Transformed the appearance of the banks of the Thames
15
Q
What was life becoming for many working class urban dwellers
A
Less harsh
16
Q
What had the factory reform movement managed to achieve by 1870
A
They had successfully campaigned for better conditions and limited hours in many major industries
17
Q
Give some examples of the simple commodities that were becoming more available and affordable at this time
A
Soap and matches
18
Q
How did the quality and availability of food improve
A
Fresh food was quickly brought in from the surrounding countryside by train and food was cheaper. Diets became more varied with meat, milk and veg
19
Q
What kind of public institutions did local authorities begin to open
A
Libraries, parks, baths and wash houses
20
Q
What kind of developments created an impression of prosperity and well being in the towns
A
Visible improvements in town planning and amenities
21
Q
When did Bazalgette design the sewage system
A
1860s
22
Q
What was the most important impact of Bazalgette’s sewage system
A
It reduced mortality rates
23
Q
Describe in birth and death rates at this time
A
From 1865 death rates began to show and overall decline, but so did birth rates. There are no solid explanations for the drop in birth rates as this occured before the creation of birth control. The trend was started by the middle class and mirrored by the working class a little later.
24
Q
Describe the issues posed by cyclical unemployment at this time
A
In spite of the higher living standards, there was little security when workers lost their jobs, possibly through being laid off or through ill health. They might have set some money aside in the Post Office saving banks introduced by Gladstone in 1861, or in their Friendly Society. They could have resorted to a kind of self help by looking for the support of family or neighbours or accepting charity. It was the unskilled workers who ended up turning to the only form of state provision available - poor relief and the workhouse, with all the humiliation and stigma that brought to a working man and his family. Economic prosperity could not banish poverty
25
Why was the situation in terms of housing in the towns so dire
Lack of commitment to improving housing and as demand for houses exceeded supply rents began to rise
26
Why was little progress made with slum progress?
Little enthusiasm among landowners because there was not enough profit in it for them, as they could make more money from rents, and there was no compulsion to comply
27
How did the treasury make an ineffective bid to help with the housing situation in 1866
They made loans available for the local authorities for house building, but there was little interest
28
What did the 1868 Torrens Act do
Bound landlords to keep property in a good state of repair
29
Generally there was limited action by central govt and local authorities to improve the housing stock. What city provided the exception here?
Birmingham, where Joseph Chamberlain carried out far reaching improvements in both housing and municipal buildings
30
What societal point was Disraeli trying to make in his 1845 novel, Sybil
Outlined the concept of Britain being two nations, which exposed the appalling living conditions of the working classes, which carried on all the way up to the 1880s. A different interpretation of two nations could be the difference between countryside and town. In the 1870s living conditions for agricultural families seemed to be much worse than living conditions for industrial families on the face of it
31
FLM Thompson on the position of the rural working class
Many features of rural life unconnceted to wages, earnings and standard of living that could have led agricultural workers to see themselves as part of an ailing industry and living in times of depression. Living conditions, especially their housing, remained for the most part poor, rudimentary or downright squalid; improved communications, increased literacy and the spread of info were breaking down rural isolation, and may well have made labourers increasingly aware of their socio economic position as virtually at the bottom of the heap
32
What did the wages of agricultural labourers and industrial workers depend on
They fluctuated according to the state of the economy
33
What was an indicator that living standards rose across the board during this period
Rising wages in both towns and countryside
34
Did industrial or rural workers generally have higher wages
Industrial workers
35
How much did real wages for industrial workers increase between 1850-75
Wages rose by an average of about 50% while prices rose by around 20%, meaning a 30% increase in real wages
36
What does FLM Thompson say about the wealth of agricultural workers at this time?
He looks at movements in the earnings of farm labourers alongside a cost of living index for the period and concludes that their wages rose in real terms from 1860, dropping to a low point only between 1878-1886. He also points out the meagreness of their money wage, which at best rose to about 20 shillings a week. Comparisons are difficult because agricultural labourers received food, fuel and shelter from their employer in differing quantities and varying quality. Their dependence on their employer for housing meant living conditions for the most were basic and sometimes squalid. Thompson suggests that improved communications, literacy and the spread of info would have made these people increasingly aware of their position as being at the bottom of the socio economic heap
37
What benefits of working in the towns encouraged rural depopulation
Shorter working hours and higher wages. The railways also made the towns easier to reach
38
What does Matthew say was the negative impact of rural depopulation on rural areas
He says that it left 'rural society demoralised'
39
What does Keith Robbins say was the impact of urbanisation on those in the countryside
He said that the rural countryside had to surrender before the advance of urban values and attitudes. Country cousins became more aware of the inferiority of their facilities. Advancement and urban life became synonomous
40
What did many town dwellers come to see the country side as
An amenity
41
Describe the development in leisure time for industrial workers
With the gradual introduction of the five and a half day week in the 1870s urban workers could contemplate a stretch of leisure time, not experienced before. With more money in their weekly wage packet they could take their family on a cheap day excursion to a seaside town on the train
42
What did the 1871 Bank Holiday Act do?
Provided statutory holidays for workers, many of whom otherwise worked year round with the exception of religious traditions and festivals like Easter and Christmas
43
Which kind of counties suffered from serious depopulation in England and Wales
Those in regions remote from industrial towns, such as Cornwall, Shropshire, Somerset and Westmorland
44
What happened in the counties like Cornwall and Shropshire that underwent serious depopulation
The local economy stagnated and the wages of agricultural labourers, already low, dropped beneath the level of farm workers in other areas of the country
45
Why was it ecomomically sensible that workers moved away from rural areas and towards the towns
Because increased mechanisation and other improvements in the farming industry often reduced the need for labour, while at the same time urban industry increased its demand for labour
46
What was the Crofters War
This war of civil disobedience forced the govt in London to take stock. The Napier Commission was created to inquire into the issue of poverty and landholding in the Highlands. In 1886 the Crofters Act gave crofting families security of tenure and ended arbitrary eviction by the landlord
47
What did agricultural workers do when depression hit farming
Headed for the towns
48
Where was the social, economic and political centre of the British Isles
England
49
Which two pieces of legislation had confirmed England's strong central position
The Acts of Union with Scotland in 1707 and Ireland in 1800
50
For how long had Wales been under the control of England
Since the 13th century and England and Wales became united between 1536 and 1543
51
Explain the state of national identity for the devolved regions
England was confident in its national identity. Scotland, Ireland and Wales had to work hard to maintain theirs. Substantial regional differences between the 4 nations. National identity and the maintenance of old traditions and language were important to Scotland, Ireland and Wales, but by about 1870, the national langauge of each was under threat
52
What does Marshall say the 1872 Scottish Education Act was an attempt to do
Attempted to Anglicise the Gaelic speakers of Scotland and Ireland and the Welsh speakers of Wales so that the peasant or agricultural class would be ready for urban life
53
Did the 1872 Scottish Education Act achieve its aim of eliminating Gaelic
The act did not directly achieve its aims since school attendance was poor in the remote areas of Ireland and Scotland. However. steady migration from rural areas made gaelic almost obsolete and severely depopulated these areas
54
What was the consequence of the north west highlands of Scotland being isolated from the rest of Britain
These crofting families were left behind during the golden age of farming, living a hand to mouth existence, continuing the use of hand implements like the foot plough and the hand winnower, largely ignorant of new farming methods and financially unable to make any improvements. Their rents became disproportionately high during the depression and in 1882 this led to an outbreak of civil disobedience known as the Crofters War
54
What part of Scotland did the railway fail to connect to the rest of Britain
The north west highlands of Scotland
55
When did the evangelical movement in Britain begin
The early 19th century
56
What did the evangelical movement have a strong influence on during the Victorian era
Religious and social life
57
What was the basis of the evangelical movement
The soteriological importance of faith
58
What did the Evangelical movement encourage
Thrift, sobriety, industry and self sacrifice, all virtues in tune with what we regard today as the standards admired by Victorian society
59
How was the evangelical movement diverse in terms of its religious influence
Because it was important for both the established anglican church and for noncomformists
60
Describe the influence the evangelical movement had on the anglican church
Within the anglican church it has its firmest support among the upper and middle classes and according to CP Hill 'brought a gradual and almost complete transformation of the tone of English upper and middle class life'
61
Give an example of one of the leading upper class anglican evangelicals
Lord Shaftesbury, whose deep faith was said to have inspired his life's work campaigning for the social improvement of the less fortunate
62
What do McCord and Purdue say about the widespread social impact of evangelicalism
While acknowledging its elitist appeal, they say that at all points on the social spectrum there were individuals who shared a belief in the paramount importance of salvation and cite as evidence the converted miners of Bishop Auckland who took to local preaching
63
How did evangelicalism cause a split within the anglican church
Evangelicalism was taken up by a section of the anglican clergy creating an informal but at times bitter division between what became known as the low church (evangelical) and high church, which was more prone to ritual. At the heart of high church anglicanism was the Oxford movement which criticised the less traditional form of worship practised by the evangelicals.
64
When was the Oxford Movement formed
1833
65
Would Queen Victoria have been part of the low or the high church
She would have classed herself as low church and her strong views on moral rectitude, Sunday observance and a strong sense of duty tied in with this. There was a strong belief that high church anglicans were too close to roman catholicism and this idea would therefore be disliked by Victoria. There persisted a lack of religious toleration and acceptance towards Catholics at this time, although most discrimination was socially inspired rather than official
66
Describe the contributions that the evangelicals made to social reform
Although their religious outlook seems stern and unbending by today's standards and their harshness towards those who had sinned is difficult to understand, their contribution towards 19th century social reform was immense. Other examples apart from Shaftesbury; Dr Thomas Barnardo, who founded the first Barnardo Home for orphan children in East London in 1867 , and William Booth, who started up the Salvation Army in 1878. Booth did incredible work among London's poor, helping many utterly destitute men and women who had lost all hope - supporting them through giving relief and then basic training to make a fresh start
67
Describe church going at this time
For the most part, evangelicals were keen churchgoers and regular attendance was promoted through the Lord's Day Observance Society, established in 1831, of which Shaftesbury was chairman
In general church attendance had actually started to fall as the traditional pattern of churchgoing in small communities had been disturbed through population movement to urban areas. The result of the only official religious census in 1851 shocked contemporaries when it revealed that church attendance across the entire population was little more than 50%
68
Describe how religious thinking began to be replaced by scientific thinking
The influence of church and religion was waning in the latter half of the 19th century despite the influence of evangelicalism. New ideas and discoveries were beginning to excite the curiosity of a better educated population. Scientific discoveries made people question previous assumptions about the working of the earth and the universe. Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) outlined the process of evolution, contradicting the literal meaning of the Bible creation story and provoking great turmoil for Christian minds
69
Describe the influence of the pre-Raphaelites
A group of talented artists including Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Morris and William Holman Hunt, harked back to a purer and more natural expression in art and tried to appeal to the ordinary working man, whose cultural development had been previously ignored. However, industrialists and aristocrats were much more interested in their work than the working man
70
Who is Samuel Smiles
Best known as a social reformer and the author of Self Help. Successful and varied career. Became interested in franchise reform and campaigned for a national education system and public libraries. Well known for his biographies of the great self made Victorians, such as Stephenson
71
What was Self Help (1859) about
Smiles created the idea of a modern role model when he featured the activities of ordinary high achieving men to inspire ordinary young people to overcome disadvantage and adversity and work hard to change their lives. Quickly became a bestseller and was read and admired by Gladstone
Expressed the growing belief that everyone should have the opportunity to fulfil their potential but they must take personal responsibility for their actions and be prepared to work to achieve their aim and not blame others when mishaps occured.
Emphasised the Victorian values of striving to improve yourself and change for the better
72
What common political philosophy did the emphasis placed on the individual stem from at this time
Laissez faire
73
What did Smiles outline as being his three key virtues for success
A sense of duty
Strength of character
Thrift and self help rather than relying on others or charitable handouts
74
Describe the societal idea of progress at this time
To make progress in both material and moral terms was to be admired. There was a clear belief in progress through freedom (laissez faire) and individual effort (self help). During this period there was progress and improvement in terms of living standards, public health, attention to personal hygeine and education provision. Great strides forward were made in farming and industry, creating prosperity in town and countryside. This tangible evidence of progress was taking place against a backdrop
75
What was the downside to thus attitude of self help
It was not the cure for all ills. Not everyone aspired to or could attain a decent standard of living. Many remained in abject poverty, unable to help themselves. Society looked down on individuals who fell into poverty and they were regarded as irresponsible, careless and lazy rather than the victims of circumstance and in need of state support. In Smiles' words. 'When people live in foul dwellings, let them alone. Let wretchedness do its work.' Contemporary thought said that the best way of addressing social evils was with minimal state interference and a reliance on voluntary activity by middle class Victorian philanthropists. However, by 1870 the principle and practise of laissez faire and individualism came into question. Govt, society and the economic framework of Britain were becoming much more complex and the govt began to accept the necessity of introducing laws to regulate society and address the most basic needs of its citizens
76
When was the first TU Congress held
1868
77
When was the Forster' Education Act
1870
78
When was the TU Act
1871
79
When was the Scottish Education Act
1872
80
When was the Criminal Law Amendment Act
1872
81
When was the Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act
1875
82
When was the 1876 Sandon's Education Act
1876
83
When was the Mundella's Education Act
1880
84
In what decade did a revival of trade unionism occur
1850s
85
Why was trade unionism able to succeed in this era where the GNTCU had failed
GNTCU failed due to a revolutionary leader alarming the established authority and the illiteracy of its members. The new model or craft unions were smaller and operated among skilled workers like engineers or boilermakers. Restrained and respectable leaders. Regarded themselves as the elite of the working classes and sought to improve working conditions through self help, self improvement and self education. Functioned as Friendly Societies, setting up benefit schemes for their members for times of hardship. Their subscription rate what was relatively high to underline their superiority over unskilled workers. They won the respect of liberal politicians like Gladstone because of their preference for settling disputes through peaceful bargaining rather than strike action. It was these workers who benefitted from the extension of the franchise in 1867. The legal position of TUs was not defined by law and their funds could not be protected by law. They hoped that supporting the liberal party would strengthen their legal position
86
What did the 1871 Trade Unions Act do
Gave the unions the legal right to hold property and funds and have them protected by law, as well as granting them the right to strike
87
What did the 1872 Criminal Law Amendment Act do
Made any form of picketing illegal. This meant although TUs had been legalised almost any action they took to achieve their objectives was illegal
88
Describe how TUs became less localised and more national at this time
Regional trades councils proved to be important in terms of the opportunities they provided for different unions to exchange ideas, and this encouraged the setting up of a national organisation for the unions. The first Trades Union Congress was held in 1868 to bring pressure to bear on the govt to give TUs legal recognition. The TUC became an annual event after its 1871 London meeting. From this time it represented the TU movement as a whole
89
Who did the working class electorate firmly support until 1871
The Liberals
90
How did the Liberals eliminate the support they had previously had from the working voters
With their TU legislation
91
What do historians think about the Trade Unions Act
They think that it was Gladstone's biggest mistake and most serious misjudgement as it cost him working class support at the 1874 election
92
How do historians explain two such contrasting pieces of legislation being passed at the same time
By his strong religious faith that abhorred violence of the threat of it
93
How did the skilled artisans who had brought Gladstone to power in 1868 feel about the TU legislation
They were bitterly disappointed with the lack of any real support for TU reform
94
Why was the TU legislation not all bad for the TUs
Because one of its main results was to strengthen the position of TUs and did much to encourage their growth. Unionism began to spread beyond the crafts and semi skilled workers to include unskilled workers
95
What did the 1875 Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act do
Replaced the unpopular 1871 Criminal Law Amendment Act. The act altered the conspiracy laws, so that unions could no longer be prosecuted for doing anything collectively that it is legal to do individually. A union action during a dispute, which could be legally committed by one person, was therefore legal for a TU. The act legalised peaceful picketing and effectively gave unions the right to strike
96
What does Eric Hopkins say about the resurgence of TUs at this time
Trade unionism entered a new period of respectability in the 1850s in which the govt regulation of working conditions was strengthened by TU action from time to time in defence of their members interests. Strikes still occured, but the prosperity of the time allowed both employers and unions to take a more flexible approach in trade disputes. The labour unions themselves were prepared to admit that strikes were not always the best way of solving labour problems
97
What did George Odger, the radical secretary of the London Trades Council, say about strikes
He said that strikes are to the social world what wars are to the political world. They become crimes unless promoted by absolute necessity
98
What did a leader of the Scottish miners say about strikes infront of a select committee in the commons in 1873
I look on strikes as a barbaric relic of a period of unfortunate relations between capital and labour and the sooner we get rid of it the better
99
What decade saw a change in direction for the labour movement after the 1850s resurgence
The 1880s
100
How did the direction of the union movement change in the 1880s
Unskilled workers began to organise, many of whom had endured appalling conditions for decades and had lacked any real bargaining power with their employers. Their militant approach, with striking the first line of attack, was in direct contrast to the craft unions. Subscriptions were low to allow for poor and often fluctuating wage levels, but the large membership gave the unions the funds to support some strike action, although not for long. Unlike the craft unions their funds did not make provision for welfare payments
101
Why was the downturn of the 1870s and the 1880s so negative for workers
As manufacturing industries began to downturn in demand for their goods and profits, unskilled workers were the first to be laid off. The high levels of unemployment made wage bargaining difficult and strikes ineffective as there was always plenty of labour to take over from strikers. Those lucky enough to have a job had little choice but to accept the poor rates of pay
102
List some of the factors behind the mass unionism of the 1880s
Education among the labouring classes after 1870
Working class gained the right to vote in 1884
TUs had gained legal status
Inevitable that unskilled workers would want to form their own unions after seeing how advantageous the craft unions had been
103
What did the middle and upper classes continue to think about education for working people at this time
To equip them for their station in life - this was even the view of ardent advocate for education reform James Kay Shuttleworth. There was also a fear that education would encourage social mobility
104
Who deemed education to be a vital part of a progressive society
Utilitarian reformers such as Henry Brougham
105
What did the anglicans and nonconformists think about education
They both wanted to save the poor from remaining in a state of ignorance but competed against each other as to who could best achieve this
106
What did the radicals think was the only institution capable of bringing about effective reform to education
The govt
107
Describe the state of working class education in 1846
Still remained the privilege of the upper and middle classes. Educational provision for the working class remained in the hands of two religious societies, the Anglican National Society and the Nonconformist British and Foreign Society. Even so, many working class families could not take advantage of this opportunity - the schools were not sufficiently widespread, ignorance and prejudice stopped some parents from allowing their children to attend, and in many cases children were in full time employment and providing essential economic support to their families. Some schools that existed catered only for children up to the age of 12. Employment was the norm for older working class children. Factory legislation passed in 1850 sanctioned young people between 13-18 working a 60 hour week
108
How did the state of working class education improve between 1846-1885
During the 1850s and 1860s the National Public Schools' Association and the National Education League promoted the idea of a permissive rather than compulsory education act. The 1870 Forster's Education Act, which made provision for elementary schools to be set up across the country, was in important step forward in acknowledging the role of the state in educating its children. Through the effects of Sandon's Act (1876) abd Mundella's Act (1880) education was made compulsory for all children up to the age of 10
109
What did annual funding for schools from parliament reach by the 1860s
Over £800,000
110
