Pressure for change 1846-85 Flashcards
What does Richard Brown say about the influence of civil society in providing pressure change in mid 19th century Britain
Difficult to assess the impact the extra parliamentary pressure had on central government. Many groups highlighted particular issues which the government was eventually prepared to legislate o. Health legislation was introduced with the support of the Health of Towns Association, but the legislation was acceptable to the commons only due to the return of cholera. PGs realised that they could influence and even intimidate the legislature, but the last word still lay with parliament. It could legislate but it could also refuse to do so. By 1850 PGs were recognised as legitimate channels through which opinion had access to government. Popular protest like chartism had mixed effects on the lives of the working population. They sought to improve conditions through demands for economic and political change, but the extent to which they succeeded was, at least in the short term, limited
What does Eric Hopkins say about the governments attitude to reform at this time
Industrialisation was transforming society and as a result the government was constantly being forced into action. The lead in pushing the government here was taken by the dedicated reformers of the time such as Shaftesbury and Chadwick. However desirable a laissez faire attitude might have been in theory government intervention was becoming inevitable
However, before 1870, the scope of this intervention was limited. Poor relief was offered on a nationwide scale but in a severaly deterrent form. The working classes therefore steered clear, preferring self help through friendly societies or the immense range of Victorian charitable societies, often in the latter case at the expense of self respect
What kind of problems were becoming increasingly apparent by the middle of the century
Social problems that had developed as a result of urbanisation and industrialisation
Why had the mid-Victorian boom that had made so many wealthy done nothing to change the plight of the masses
Did not solve poverty and its associated problems, or relieve the misery and wretchedness of those at the bottom of the economic ladder. There was still unemployment. For some of those in work the conditions were deplorable. Remained the problem of unregulated employment of children in small workshops. No state system of education and poorer working class children could not read or write
What was the most pressing unresolved social problem at this time
The state of housing in the slum districts in towns and cities and the health hazards caused by overcrowded and insanitary living conditions
What was stopping government from taking the required action
Strongly held laissez faire views that held that it was not the role of the gov to intervene in people’s welfare
Who continued to put pressure on gov despite this
Social philanthropists and voluntary groups
What kind of things did they campaign for
Changes in the conditions of factories and other workplaces like the coal mines
Improvements in poor law application
National education system
Relief of the destitute, the mentally ill and orphan children
Better housing conditions
Health provision
Describe the contributions of Lord Shaftesbury at this time
Continued his campaigns for social improvement that had started in the 1830s. The ten hour act regulating hours in factories was passed in 1847. When the manufacturers found a loophole, he continued his campaign until in the 1850 Factory Act he succeeded in limiting the amount of hours which a factory could remain open
He pressed the gov to set up the Children’s Employment Commission to extend all legislation regulating child labour to all workshops, however small. The 1864 Act was extended in 1871 to include brickfields, where children were still employed in intolerable conditions
Wanted to end the abuse of young climbing boys, sent up the soot filled chimneys of the suburbs. After many rebuffs the Chimney Sweepers Act was passed in 1875 to ban the practise
Worked through societies, such as the Social Science Association dealing with public health, penal reform and education for women, and alongside other social reformers to keep up pressure on government on a wide range of social issues. Instrumental with Edwin Chadwick in encouraging the Russel gov to set up a Board of Health as part of the 1848 Public Health Act
Among which group was charitable activity for the poor popular
The middle classes
What was the benefit of this charitable activity from the middle classes
Eased consciences and perpetuated ideas of self help as well as relieving pressure on gov to intervene
What do McCord and Purdue say about this charitable activity
Greater than that of every other society. Fears that it might not have wholly good effects. The voluntary nature of most activity meant overlapping provision and many gaps. Some feared that excessive kindness may sap the invaluable impulse to self reliance and self improvement
What did these fears around ‘excessive kindness’ lead to the develop of
The Charity Organisation Society in 1869 to provide help only to the ‘deserving’ after a full assessment of their needs, and then to set them up to help themselves
What was the slogan of the Charity Organisation Society
‘We must use charity to create the power of self help’
When and where did the first cholera outbreak occur
1832 Sunderland
Where did most outbreaks occur
Poor areas
Describe the contribution of Dr John Snow
Suspected that it was caused by contaminated water and in an outbreak in Soho London in 1854, after he isolated a local water pump, the incidence of cholera fell
What has rapid urbanisation created problems in terms of
The provision of basic amenities such as pure water, proper drainage and sanitation and clean well lit streets
What made houses in working class areas inferior
Lacked light, ventilation, running water and decent sanitation
What kind of issues were the direct result of these dirty and insanitary living conditions
Multiple health problems, frequent outbreaks of disease and unacceptably high death rate
Where did Edwin Chadwick highlight the problems of disease abd poor living conditions
In his Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of GB (1842)
What act did this report provide the blueprint for
The 1848 Public Health Act
What kind of arguement did he make for public health reform
An economic one
What was this economic arguement
Believed that if attention was spent on improving the health of the poor then they would rely less on poor relief. Therefore spending money on health reform was sound economics
What challenged the effectiveness of his arguements
They met with opposition from vested interests
What was required to get the 1848 Public Health Act through
A cholera outbreak
What did the Act set up
A General Health Board in London with three members, Chadwick, Shaftesbury and Lord Morpeth, with Local Boards of Health each run by a medical officer in areeas where the death rate was above the national average
How was the act perceived once this cholera outbreak was over
Resentment from those who perceived it as state interference in their personal lives
What was the consequence of this response for the act
Chadwick was dismissed from the Health Board in 1854 and the board was dissolved in 1858. Its administrative function was placed in the hands of the home office and Dr John Simon was appointed Medical Officer of Health
What precedent did the act set
The idea of public health reform that would continue for decades
Describe the improvements made by Simon as Medical Officer of Health
Oversaw piecemeal improvements, but a strong centralised body was needed to tackle the endemic problems that persisted in the poorer urban areas. In spite of the introduction of the registration of doctors and the passing of the Food Adulteration Act, the problems caused by poor sanitation and a lack of fresh water supplies continued. No proper central administrative structure and most local authorities were left wanting
How did public health receive somewhat of a boost in 1871
The Royal Commission on Sanitary Matters recommended that the fragmentary and confused Sanitary Law should be made uniform. As a result the Local Government Board was set up, which reorganised health administration as an office of central government
From what group did renewed pressure for political reform come at this time
The Chartists
Why did the Chartist movement undergo a revival in 1847
Economic depression
The influence of several revolutions occuring in Europe at the time
What did O’Connor do after being fired up by the resurgence
Drew up a new constitution for the UK with himself as president
What kind of mass meeting did they plan
They wanted to have a mass meeting in Kennington common before the presentation of a 6 million sig petition to parliament
How did the govt respond to these plans
Real alarm in govt circles and troops deployed in London
How did O’Connell respond to the govt
He caved to the advice that the petition be carried to parliament by just a few representatives, as the planned march would be blocked by govt forces
What happened to the movement as a result
It was deflated and fell away
What was the main flaw in the Chartist movement
Its episodic nature due to the intermittent apathy of the working classes
The majority of the working class were illiterate and unable to organise themselves effectively, especially at the local level
Why was the charter doomed to fail
It was inevitable and that it would be rejected by a parliament dominated by aristocratic and wealthy middle class middle class interests
Why was it difficult to promote unity within the movement
Because even the leaders were divided
What element of the movement frightened away any potential middle class support
Violence
Why would middle class support have been useful
Because they could have helped with the funding crisis
What did this lack of funding mean they were unable to take advantage of
The latest means of communication such as the railways and the penny post
What was the penny post
A system of pre-paid postage, through the issue of a stamp; introduced in 1840 and was the start of the modern postage system
Who drew away chartist support
Other better organised PGs
What prevented another revival of the movement after 1847
Sustained economic growth. Before the next real depression set in in 1873, a section of the working class had been enfranchised, the qualification to stand as an MP had been removed and the liberal government had passed the ballot act, meaning that three out of the 6 original chartist demands had been received anyway
What is generally claimed to have been the legacy of the movement
The achievement out 5 out of the 6 points by 1918
Why is this idea contentious
Questionable whether this occured because of the movement’s influence or whether it was part of the natural process of democratic progress in GB
What have modern historians generally concluded about groups such as the chartists and the anti corn law league
That they have been given more attention by past historians then their influence deserves. In the context of the period, it was not them, but rather the strong arm of the state that prevailed
What does Asa Briggs say about the public mood in the late 1860s lended itself to parliamentary reform
The break in economic prosperity in 1866-7 influened politics directly. Ripples of economic disorder to in all areas of the country and widespread unemployment. In July 1866 there were riots in London. The harvest was ruined by heavy rains and meat prices were high. Cholera made dramatic reappearances and Fenian disturances created alarm. The deteriorating socio-economic conditions created a shar p outburst of political radicalism, and ‘the people’ were showing as clearly as they could that reform was necessary. Establishment threats to TUs drew in many skilled artisans, who had previously shown little interest in politics. A coalition of extra parliamentary forces seemed to be massing across the country
What did this resurgene in radical pressure result in
The passage of the Second Reform Act in 1867
For what reason do the series of reform bills introduced between 1851-66 seem to have failed
Lack of public pressure on govt
Why was there so little pressure for reform at this time
Chartist movement had collapsed
The middle classes had been enfranchised through the GRA and were enjoying a period of prosperity, so were generally satisfied with the existing parliamentary system
What happened within political parties during the 1860s to aid reform
Change in attitude within the parties
Changes in the make up of those parties
Describe this process
The old aristocratic Whig Party was transforming to the Liberal Party in which the commercial and industrial members had growing influence. These successful businessmen, who lived in the large unrepresented towns and cities sought to extend their status and power through the redistribution of seats to these areas
Gladstone become convinced reform was necessary and lead the Liberal Party in this direction
The parliamentary radicals who often spoke for the working man were becoming more influential within the liberal party. For instance, Radical MP John Bright influenced his influence on Gladstone
The conservatives also accepted the need for change, although Disraeli and the progressive Tories also saw reform as a tactical opportunity to win the wider support of a larger electorate
What made the Liberal more receptive the idea of extending the franchise to the skilled working class
Their improved standards of living and levels of education
They saved their wages in Friendly Societies or in the post office bank and G thought they had proven themselves to be responsible
What social trends had led to constituency sizes becoming even more uneven
Continuing pop growth
Movement from the countryside the the urban areas
No new constituencies had been formed in response
This led to a large number of unrepresented pops in the expanding industrial towns and cities
Why did Liberal middle class manufacturing MPs have a vested interest in redistribution of seats
As it would extend their political influence
Which group best kept up the pressure reform inside and outside of parliament
The radicals
How is John Bright an example of this
Toured the country encouraging ordinary men to demand their democratic rights. He put forward convincing arguements on behalf of the skilled workers in favour of extending the franchise
Why were the writings of political philosophers such as JS Mill useful
They raised interest in the political debate around extending the franchise
Which foreign strifes for freedom and democracy inspired those in Britain to look for reform at home
American Civil War (1861-5)
Italian Risorgimento (1859-61)
The visit of whom in 1864 inspired radicals to push for reform
Garibaldi in 1864, London
How did the govt respond when thousands of people flocked to hear Garibaldi speak
The authorities clamped down on his public meetings
How did the public respond to these govt actions
There were angry protests and this repressive govt response directly led to the setting of the the Reform League in 1865
Who comprised and supported the Reform League
Mainly a working class alliance with strong TU support and a few wealthy middle class backers
What was the aim of the Reform League
To work towards democracy through universal male suffrage and a programme of radical reform
Why was the Reform League and effective force
Local branches sprang up in the manufacturing towns and the league was able to mobilise its considerable force of TU members and make its presence felt. Additional pressure came from leading TU men in the London Trades Council who met in 1866 and started to organise a campaign for reform
What was the less active and less successful counterpart to the Reform League
The Reform Union
When was this created
Around a year before the league in 1864
Who largely made up this movement
The middle classes
What did the Reform Union want
Called for a secret ballot and the redistribution of seats to correct the current inbalances
What did John Bright encourage the Reform League and the Reform Union to do
Work together towards the extension of the franchise for working men
Why did this not happen
Because class divides caused tensions between the two groups
What did the Reform do after Gladstone’s Reform Bill was rejected by parliament in 1866
Organised demonstrations across the country
How did the Reform League cause alarm in July 1866
Outbreak of violence near Hyde Park after a reform league meeting which had attracted a huge crowd was prevented from taking place
A similar demonstration took place in May 1867
Why was this pressure from outside of parliament crucial
It may have been influential in persuading Disraeli to seize the moment and take credit for what had been regarded as a liberal reform up until this point, as D realised that if he didn’t pass the reform act in 1867 then G would do it as soon as he got back into power
What is a fenian
Term used at the time to describe all nationalist groups associated with seeking Irish independence
How did the fenians aim to achieve an independent Ireland
By forcing the British govt to repeal to 1800 Act of Union
From the remnants of which group did the Fenians arise
Young Ireland
How can the Fenians be seen as the political legacy of the famine
Because they were responding to the increasing suffering of the Irish people
What were they prepared to use to achieve their aims
Violence
What were their political aims
Wanted an Irish govt completely separate from the British govt, with their own president, rather than being subjects of the British monarchy.
They set up a secret society in 1858 ‘to make Ireland an independent democratic republic’
What did this society become known as
The Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB)
Where was a parallel organisation set up
The Fenian Brotherhood was set up in North America
Why did the movement have support in England and Scotland
Among the Irish immigrant pop in places like Liverpool, Manchester and Glasgow
How were the 1860s a mixed decade for the IRB
The movement rapdily gathered momentum and claimed a membership of 80,000 supporters, but when the rising occured in 1867, the insurgents were thin on the ground and largely ineffective. Young Fenian Thomas Kelly organisaed a simultaneous rising in England that also ended in failure when the small disorganised groups of poorly armed men were apprehended by police and troops
Despite the seeming disaster of the Fenian Plot, the harsh conditions suffered by the prisoners, serving long prison sentences, elicited sympathy from many of those who had previously opposed the fenians, and there were calls for amnesty
How did these demands for amnest bring a new Irish leader to the fore
Dublin lawyer and former convinced unionist Isaac Butt was inspired to set up Amnesty Association, which kept the fate of political prisoners in the public eye
Describe Isaac Butt
Saw the relationship between landlord and tenant as one of the root causes of Ireland’s inefficient economy. He believed the solution to Irish problems lay in constitutional nationalism and established the Irish Home Rule Party. When he refused to engage in obstructionist tactics in parliament in 1878, there was an attempt to oust him as party leader
What do the Fenian Rising lead to calls for in some quarters of parliament
Tough govt measures to be introduced in Ireland to deal with troublemakers
How do the influences of liberalism and equality lead to an alternative approach to Irish problems
Others wanted to identify the cause of the violence and introduce reforms to bring peace to Ireland. This view was heled by Gladstone. He had been shocked by the violence of the movement, but it brought to his attention to urgency of the Irish situation
Describe Gladstone’s policy on Ireland during his first ministry
Met with little acknowledged success. Tackled the problems of a lack of equality in terms of land and religion. His reforms were directed at suppressing fenian demands for the repeal of the union by satisfying greivances. The majority Catholic population in Ireland remained dissatisfied - they were poor and oppressed by their protestant landlords and were therefore easy prey for violent extremeists who tried to whip up anti-English feeling. Growing desire among the Irish to manage their own affairs
What did Isaac Butt set up in 1873
The Home Rule League
Why was the Home Rule League such a success
Had sufficiently wide based support amongst the Irish to be a truly national organisation
What did the 1874 GE mean for Ireland
Returned 59 Irish MPs on a home rule platform. The group formed the nucleus of a strong Irish nationalist or home rule party, whose actions directed Irish politics for the next decade
Why did Butt begin to fall out of favour within the home rule movement
He was a moderate and believed in achieving political indepedence for Ireland through peaceful means, but his movement began to give way to a much tougher and less conciliatory group
When did the effects of agricultural depression take effect in Ireland
The late 1870s. Tenant farmers who could no longer meet rent were evicted
What was the response to this amongst the Irish
The agitation of Irish tenants against eviction and refusal to pay rents was directed by the Land League, founded in 1879 by Michael Davitt, a member of the IRB. Brought considerable pressure upon Gladstone’s second ministry to introduce land reform. It was strengthened by the League’s loose association with the Home Rule League, now led by Charles Stewart Parnell after Butt’s death in 1879. Parnell agitated in the house for the redress for evicted tenants. The pressure contributed to G’s major reform of the 1881 Land Act
Describe Charles Stewart Parnell
Deep dislike of the English. As an MP for the Home Rule Party, embarked on an obstructionist policy to bring attention to the cause. President of the Home Rule Confederation, he had a ruthlessness and authority which gave him massive support in Ireland. Condoned the illegal activities of the Land League
Emerged on the political scene at the time of the Home Rule movement needed a leader with his strength of purpose and dynamism. His decision as leader of the Home Rule League to cooperate with the Land League gave great momentum to Home Rule. His skillful management of Irish MPs led a strong Irish nationalist party, which held the balance of power in parliament. Parnell became the undisputed leader of Irish nationalism
When Gladstone tried to suppress the growing Irish unrest with a policy of coercion and conciliation, he was challenged by Parnell’s Irish Nationalist Party. Gladstone’s reform acts of 1884 and 1885 extended the franchise in Ireland and the new Irish voter consolidated the position of Parnell and the Irish Nationalist Party and strengthened them for the Home Rule fight
