Social Cultural Flashcards
impression formation AKA
social cognition
schema
Organized patterns of thought and behavior that influence what we attend to and how we observe new information
Why do we use schemas
Facilitate memory recall
Save energy
improve predictions
Four main types of schemas
Person schema
event schema
role schema
self schema
Person schema
Attributes we use to categorize people and make inferences about their behavior
Event schema
A.k.a. cognitive script, provides the basis for anticipating the future, setting goals, and making plans
Role schema
Often associated with stereotypes, tell us how we expect individuals in certain roles to behave
Self schema
Representations about our self-concept. Perceptions of our traits, competencies, and values
What is a heuristic
Mental shortcuts, efficient thinking strategy, can lead to errors in judgment and decision making
Availability Heuristic
The easier information is to recall, the more impact it will have on subsequent decisions or judgments
Representativeness heuristic
Judging the likelihood of an event based on its resemblance to the typical case rather than base rates
Leads to errors over estimating the likelihood that something will happen
Heider’s two types of causal attribution
dispositional: personal characteristics like personality traits, motives, attitudes
situational: social norms, external pressures, etc.
Correspondent Inference Theory
Jones and Davis (1965)
people make inferences about others’ behavior when they are looking for a cause of their behavior
Covariation Model of Attribution
Kelley (1972)
we assess similarities (covariation) across situations to help us make causal attributions in a rational and logical fashion
use 3 types of info:
consensus information: how other people act in the same situation and with the same stimulus
distinctiveness information: how similarly people act in different situations
consistency information: how frequently people perceive the same stimuli and respond the sam e
Weiner (1985) theory of motivation and emotion
ppl make attributions for success and failure. these elicit different emotional consequences characterized by three dimensions:
stable vs unstable
internal vs external (locus of ctrl)
controllable vs uncontrollable
bias occurs when
the perceiver systematically distorts whta are thought to be correct and logical procedures
fundamental attribution error
tendency to overvalue personal/dispositional explanations for behavior while undervaluing situational explanations
Actor-observer bias
tendency to attribute dispositional factors to others’ behavior but situational factors to our own bx.
self-serving bias
tendency to attribute dispositional factors for success and external, uncontrollable factors for failure
AKA self-enhancing bias
confirmation bias
when we search for, interpret, or recall info that confirms our pre-existing beliefs
self-fulfilling prophecy
when a prediction causes itself to become true
Barnum effect
tendency for individuals to give high accuracy ratings to general descriptions (of their personalities)
ex: horoscopes
illusory correlation
perception that a relationship exists between variables when only a minor or NO relationship exists
2 concepts involved in forming impressions
filtering: people tend to ignore much of what they see
inference: people tend to go beyond evidence
both lead to errors of judgment
tactics used in impression formation
self-promotion
self-monitoring
self-handicapping
affiliation
the desire to be with others and form social relationships
gain-loss theory of attraction
higher attraction when first evaluation is negative but changes to positive
social exchange theory of attraction
attraction occurs when the relationship’s rewards exceed costs and when costs and rewards are reciprocal
equity theory of relationships
perceptions of equity in a relationship are more important than the magnitude of costs vs rewards
4 categories that motivate altruism
egoism (to benefit self)
altruism (to benefit other)
collectivism ( to benefit a group)
principlism (to uphold a moral principle)
empathy-altruism hypothesis
altruism is evoked by the desire to help someone who is suffering
bystander effect
people are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present
Latané and Darley’s additional 2 factors influencing bystander apathy
social comparison: compare your behavior to what others are doing.
evaluation apprehension: fear of taking action due to embarassment or social disapproval if action is inappropriate
frustration-aggression hypothesis
aggression is result of frustration. aggression removes what is getting in the way, or can be directed to another thing.
NOT well supported in rsch
social learning theory of aggression
People learn what initiates and sustains aggression from observations of others
deindividuation, and how it relates to aggression
people act more aggressively when they believe their actions are anonymous
in contrast, threat of retaliation often decreases aggressiveness
how are prejudice and discrimination different
prejudice: attitudes
discrimination: actions
aversive racism
more subtle racism characterized by persistent avoidance of other racial groups. often learned behaviors from childhood, can be more complex and ambivalent racial expressions
implicit bias
internalized and unconscious attitudes and stereotypes that affect our attitudes and behaviors towards ppl
characteristics of implicit biases
pervasive
malleable
Allport (1954) intergroup prejudice
arises from combination of historical, cultural, economic, cognitive and personality factors. Need to address multiple causes when aiming to reduce prejudice
contact hypothesis
stereotypes will decrease when contact between members of different groups increases
(need contact but also equal power, status, etc)
Kelman’s (1958) social influence theory include three types of social influence/reasons people change their behavior
compliance: when ppl change their behavior to get reward or avoid punishment
identification: change in order to be accepted by another person
internalization: acceptance of a belief that is expressed publically and privately
foot in the door and door in the face are methods of
gaining compliance
most common form of social influence
conformity to others
types of conformity
informational: conforming to people who we view as well informed
normative conformity: pressure to conform to positive expectations of others
and peer pressure
seminal studies on conformity
Sherif (1936)
Asch (1951)
autokinetic effect - the illusion that a light is moving
Asch: peer pressure affects how people respond to questions about length of lines
Obedience
when a person submits to a request of authority
reactance
when a person feels their choices are being removed, and the reaction is the opposite of what is desired
social power
exertion of influence over another person
minority influence
when the minority changes the opinion of the majority
usually involves a shift in personal opinion.
people usually comply with majority for normative reasons, and comply with the minority for informational reasons
social impact theory
Latané 1981
the effect of any information source on an individual will increase with three factors:
1 strength of the source of the impact (how important the people in the group are)
2 immediacy (how close the group members are to you)
3 number of sources imposing the impact (1 person vs. 6 people - but more than 5-6 makes minimal incremental difference)
**depicts people as passive receivers of social impact
dynamic social impact theory
4 components that influence how group dynamics operate:
1 consolidation: reduction in variance
2 clustering: regional differences in cultural elements
3 correlation: associations between elements
4 principle of continuing diversity
*cultures can be created and changed from the bottom-up thru everyday communication
6 principles of persuasion
reciprocity: return favors
commitment and consistency
social proof: people do things when they see others doing them
authority
liking
scarcity
Cognitive dissonance theory
Festinger 1957
People desire consistency between two or more attitudes or between an attitude and behavior. States of dissonance are unpleasant and prompt the person to change their attitude.
elaboration likelihood model
Petty & Cacioppo 1986
2 communication routes to changing attitudes:
1. peripheral
2. central
feature that makes communicators more credible
when they argue against their own self-interests
how mood affects a person’s ability to be persuaded
when in a good mood, less likely to carefully process info –> more easily convinced
forewarning
people are less likely to be convinced when told in advance they’ll be hearing a persuasive message
field theory
Lewin 1936
bx is affected by the person and their environment
4 types of intra-individual confliect
Approach-approach
Avoidance-avoidance
approach-avoidance
Double approach-avoidance
crowding
state of mind in high population-density areas. can have positive or negative effects
density-intensity hypothesis
differential effects of crowding occur because some crowds increase positive experiences BUT also make unpleasant experiences more negative
two theories of mate selection
Darwin’s sexual selection theory: same-sex competition for a mate
Trivers’ parental investment theory: seek mate that leads to highest investment in offspring
4 mating strategies
monogamous
polygynous: 1 male, multiple females
polyandrous: 1 female, multiple males
short-term
prosocial behavior
one person acts to help another without an ulterior motive
empathy
prosocial emotion
empathy-altruism hypothesis
the amount of help we are likely to give without selfish thoughts is directly in proportion to the amount of empathy we feel for the person
ways to elicit empathy for anoth erpeson
Baumeister & Finkel 2010
focusing on anothers’ feelings
sharing emotions, feelings, sensations
valuing another’s welfare
recognition of kinship, similarity, or closeness
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
three aspects of personality:
id: operates on pleasure principle
ego: defers gratitude
superego: blocks id’s socially unacceptable drives,
overdeveloped ego
when drive for pleasure is overindulged - can lead to addiction, anger, self-harming bxs
overdeveloped superego
exaggerated sense of right and wrong
leads to guilt, anxiety, EDs
object relations theory
Klein
objects are conceptualized as internalized images
Freud’s psychosexual stages
oral
anal
phallic
latent
genital
Object relations theory differs from psychosexual theory in that
OR: early interactions between infant and adult shaped later expectations for relationships/other people
stages in object relations theory
Normal Autism: 0-1 mo
Normal symbiosis: 2-3 mo
separation-individuation: begins at 4 mo
object constantcy: starts at 3 y
*disruption of this process leads a child to carry that “object” in unconscious throughotu adulthood, and expect similar interactions with others
jungian theories
conceptualize personality as a consequence of both the conscious and unconscious mind
uconscious includes both personal and collective unconscious
“persona” within jungian theories
a public mask that overemphasizes individuality, minimizes the collective psyche, and hides the true nature of the individual
archetypes or “primordial images” within jungian theories
cause people to experience and understand certain phenomena in a universal way
4 basic psychological functions contributing to a person’s personality, per Jung
thinking
feeling
sensing
intuiting
this theory led to Myers-Briggs type testing
Adlerian theory AKA individual pyschology
basic mistakes originating from faulty perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs lead to myths, which strongly influence personality
self-defeating perceptions and feelings of inferiority may develop in childhood and persist (less useful as a person ages)
Adler thought that people
strive for superiority due to an inherent tendency to become competent and achieve “perfect completion”
people follow a “style of life” that unifies aspects of their personality
birth order is important in his theory
self psychology theory hypothesizes that illness/personality disruption is due to
unmet developmental needs
humanistic and existential approaches emphasize
subjectivity and self-reflection, esp the importance of choice and self-determination
Yalom
anxiety arises when people are facesd with normal life experiences, such as death, isolation, meaninglessness, freedom
Rogers
person-centered theories.
unconditional positive regard
2 parts of the self develop over time: the ideal self and the self-concept
openness to experience reduces conflict between these 2 parts
Gestalt theories
personality consists of self and self-image
self:creative aspect of personality that promotes inherent tendency for self-actualization
self-image: “darker side” of personality,
social cognitive theories
e.g., Bandura, social learning
reality therapy
form of CBT
Glasser
human behavior is purposeful and originates from within the individual
All behaviors are choices
trait theory of personality
focuses on role of specific personality traits
Allport: central traits, secondary traits.
Cardinal traits: characteristics by which an individual may be recognized
interpersonal/systematic theories of personality
combines psychodynamic and CBT
theme: focus on elements external to the individual. social environment and larger social systems are importan.
Sullivan: self is defined by various interactions
Sue and Sue’s Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model
5 stage model that describes how people understand themselves in terms of their culture, the dominant culture, and the oppressive relationship among cultures
- conformity
- dissonance
- resistance and immersion
- introspection
- integrative awareness
4 stages of the black Racial Identity Development Model
Pre-encounter stage
Encounter stage
Immersion-emersion stage
Internalization stage (adopt 1/3 identities: pro-Black, nonracist; biculturist Black-other; multiculturist Black-2others
race salience
the degree to which an individual’s race is currently a relevant part of their self-concept
White Racial Identity development model
Helms, 1990, 1995
2 phases:
1. abandoning racism (steps 1-3)
2. developing nonracist White identity (steps 4-6)
6 steps of WRIDM
Contact status
Disintegration
Reintegration
Psuedoindependence
Immersion-emersion
Autonomy
acculturation
multidimensional construct that refers to the extent to which an individual changes, adapts, accommodates, or adopts the values, attitudes, and behaviors or their own group and the dominant/majority group
4 categories of acculturation status, proposed by Berry, Kim, Minde, Mok (1987)
integration: maintains own (minority) culture and incorporates many aspects of dominant culture
assimilation: relinquish own culture
separation: withdraws from dominant culture
marginalization: not identifying with either own or dominant culture
ADDRESSING acronym
Age and generational influences
Developmental or acquired disabilities
Religion/spiritual orientation
Ethnicity
SES
Sexual orientation
Indigenous heritage
National origin
Gender
