Social Flashcards
What is the aim of Milgram?
To see if naive ppt would give a lethal electric shock to a person
What is the Sample of Milgram and how was it gained?
Volunteer sample in newspaper ad of 40 males 18-50 with varying jobs
How were they assigned to their role?
A rigged draw with the confederate
Who became the learner and who became the teacher?
Mr Wallace was the learner and they were the teacher
What real shock was given in this study?
45v
What task did they do in this study?
Word pairs with Mr Wallace
Describe the shock generator
15-450v, goes up in 15v each time until ‘xxx’
What happened if they wanted to stop?
They were given one of the 4 prods
What did the prods say?
Prod 1: Please continue. Prod 2: The experiment requires you to continue. Prod 3: It is absolutely essential that you continue. Prod 4: You have no other choice but to continue
How were the learner, teacher and experimenter arranged?
The learner was behind a wall in another room and the experimenter sat behind the teacher
What are the results of the Milgram study?
100% went to 300v and 65% went to 450V
What was the conclusion of the study?
Authority figures can trigger people to give lethal electric shocks
What were reasons Milgram gave for the obedience in his study?
- The prestigious setting 2. The barrier (wall). 3. The gradual increase in the shocks. 4. The prods. 5. The lab coat showing authority
What are the key points of Milgram’s procedure?
- Volunteer sample of 40 men from ad
-Rigged draw with confederate
-45v real shock
-Shock increased by 15V when answer was wrong
-4 prods if they tried to stop
What is a strength and weakness of Milgram’s generalisablity?
(-) Shared characteristics as they volunteered or Androcentric as 40 males
(+) Variety of jobs and age range
What can you say about the reliablity of Milgram?
(+) Standardised procedure e.g. shock generator and prods
What is a strength and a weakness about Milgram’s validity?
(-) Low mundane realism as artificial task of delivering shocks
(+) Low Demand Characteristics as they were told the study was about learning rather than obedience
What are ethical concerns about Milgram?
-Informed consent & Deception (they didn’t know the real purpose or the confederate was an actor)
-Withdrawal- the prods encouraged them to keep going
-Protection from harm (the stress/pressure of having to give the shocks)
-Debrief (wasn’t instant)
What are the three key concepts of Agency theory?
Autonomous State, Agentic State, Moral strain
How does evolution tie into Agency theory?
We have evolved the different states e.g. agentic state as it helps us survive as a group
What did Milgram suggest about socialisation and obedience?
We are socialised from a young age by parents/society to be obedient to those in authority
Define the Agentic State
You act as an agent of the authority figure, You place the responsibility onto the authority figure
Define the autonomous state
You act according to your own free will, You take responsibility for your own actions
What is moral strain?
The pressure you feel to obey when asked to do something that goes against your conscience as you want to do both.
What relieves moral strain?
Shifting into an autonomous state
What do you call it when moving from the autonomous state to the agentic state?
The agentic shift
How did Milgram’s participants show moral strain?
Nervous laughter, trembling and digging their nails into their skin
How does Milgram’s research support Agency theory?
65% went into the agentic state and shocked the learner when ordered by an authority figure
How does Hofling’s study support/conflict with Agency theory?
Because 21/22 nurses obeyed, showing they were in an agentic state because ordered by an authority figure
How is Impact theory better than Agency theory?
It includes more situational factors which influence obedience like number and immediacy making it less reductionist
How is Agency theory better than Impact theory?
It includes Moral Strain, how the person feels about being obedient but the other doesn’t, this makes it a more complete explanation of obedience
How can Agency theory be said to be useful to the real world?
Explains events like the holocaust/My Lai Massacre- it shows how the agentic state can happen in real life making it a credible explanation and can lead to a reduction in blind obedience through training etc
What other factor could cause obedience that Agency theory doesn’t account for?
It ignores individual factors like Authoritarian Personality and External Locus of control which could make people more obedient
What are the three key concepts of Agency theory?
Autonomous State, Agentic State, Moral strain
What is the collective name for the three factors which influence obedience in impact theory?
Social Forces
What are the three social forces?
Strength Immediacy and Number
What is meant by strength in impact theory?
The more perceived power an authority figure has, the more obedient the target will be.
What is meant by immediacy in impact theory?
The closer the authority figure is, the more obedient the target will be., The more recent the order was given, the more obedient the target will be.
What is meant by number in impact theory?
The more authority figures there are giving orders, the more obedient the target will be.
Define psychosocial law
With each added person the Impact increases (but at a decreasing rate).
What is the divisional effect?
The strength of the authority figure is divided by the amount of targets.
What studies support Impact theory?
Milgram V7 (immediacy), Milgram V10 & V13 (Strength) , Milgram & Bickman (number)
How does Milgram’s variation 7 support SIT?
Less people obeyed when the instructions were given over the phone. Showing immediacy is a credible factor to explain obedience.
How does Milgram’s variation 10 support SIT?
Less people obeyed when the location of the experiment was less prestigious. Showing Strength is a credible factor to explain obedience.
How does Milgram’s variation 13 support SIT
Less people obeyed the man as he was dressed in ordinary clothes. Showing Strength is a credible factor to explain obedience.
Why is Impact theory a better explanation of obedience than Agency theory?
Impact has more factors to influence obedience than Agency theory does meaning it is a more complete explanation of obedience
Which of these is a correct weakness of Impact theory?
It doesn’t include personality factors which might influence obedience like authoritarian personality or locus of control. This means it isn’t a complete explanation of obedience because it doesn’t include individual differences
Why is the ‘formula’ for impact theory an issue?
It is reductionist AND determinist because it says that obedience behaviour can be explained by a formula which is simplistic and ignores choice
How is Agency theory better than Impact theory?
It includes Moral Strain, how the person feels about being obedient but the other doesn’t, this makes it a more complete explanation of obedience
What real world event can Impact theory explain?
The holocaust- it shows how the Strength, Immediacy and Number could be influential and can happen in real life making it a credible explanation
What other factor about a person could influence obedience which impact theory doesn’t account for?
Personality e.g. Authoritarian personality and Locus of control can make you more obedient, which Impact theory doesn’t account for
Where did Variation 10 take place?
A run down office in Bridgeport
What was the aim of Variation 13 (ordinary man)?
To investigate whether an ordinarily dressed man giving instructions would be obeyed
What were the results of Variation 7 (telephone instructions)?
22.5% obeyed
Who was running the variation 10 study?
A private company ‘friends of Bridgeport’
What percentage of participants obeyed in Variation 13 (ordinary man)?
20%
What percentage of participants obeyed in Variation 10 (rundown office)?
48%
What was the conclusion of Variation 7 (telephone instructions)?
Proximity to the authority figure affects obedience
What sampling technique was used in Variation 10 (rundown office)?
Volunteer - participants were recruited by mailshot through the post
True or false: Participants lied to the authority figure in variation 7 (telephone instructions)
True - participants continued to give low level shocks but told the researcher they were giving high level shocks
What was the office like in Variation 10 (rundown office)?
Sparsely furnished, in a commercial building
What is the purpose of the phone in variation 7
The experimenter used it for instructions and to prod the teacher
Which variation had 20 ppts unlike the other 2?
Variation 13
Which variation had 3 people at the rigged draw? (Teacher, learner and experimenter assistant)
Variation 13
What happened to the experimenter in variation 13?
He got a call and left the room
Who decided to give shocks to the learner in variation 13?
The ordinary main/aide to the experimenter
In variation 13 after the participant refused to go on what happened?
The ‘assistant’ (who was a confederate playing an ‘ordinary man assigned’ to being an assistant) started to give them
In variation 13 after the participant stopped giving the shocks how many tried to restrain the assistant from delivering them?
5
What is the aims of Cohrs?
To look for correlations between RWA, SDO, OCEAN and prejudice. To see how peer and self-report scores match about prejudice
The sample in study 1 is
193 Germans via opportunity sampling
The sample in study 2 is
424 German’s via opportunity sample
What personality variables were measured?
RWA, SDO and Big 5 factors (agreeableness, openness etc)
Who did they measure prejudice towards?
Prejudice for homosexuality, those with a disability and foreigners
What method was used to gather data?
Self-reports/questionnaires
What did they find about self vs peer reports
They were simiilar on most traits
What two traits did peer and self reports vary in during study 1
Agreeableness and RWA
How did study 2 differ to study 1
It used twins and peers, questions were changed to 5 point scales and some refined e.g. ‘turks’ rather than foreigners
What was the correlation with Agreeableness and SDO/Prejudice?
A negative correlation
What was the correlation with RWA and prejudice?
A positive correlation
What was the correlation with SDO and prejudice?
A positive correlation
What is the correlation between Conscientiousness and SDO/RWA?
A positive correlation
What was the correlation betweem Openness and prejudice?
A negative correlation
What is good about the personality questionnaires being standardised?
It means the study results about the questionnaire is more generalisable
Why is this a good sample?
Relatively large sample (193 and 424)
Why is this questionnaire study ethical?
There was confidentiality of answers on the questionnaire
What is a problem with closed questions?
People are unable to expand and explain themselves
What is a problem with the correlational nature of this research?
You don’t get cause and effect between the personality variables and prejudice
What is a problem with using a questionnaire to measure prejudice and obedience?
Socia desirability, people lie to look good
What is an issue with the sample of this study?
Ethnocentric as all from Germany so their results don’t tell us about the relationship of prejudice and personality in other culltures, Opportunity sample so they share characteristics as they all know the researcher
What did the peers do?
Completed the questionnaires about the person in the study and handed them back in a sealed envelope
What is a problem with using ranked scale questions?
The interpretation of the numbers/scores about prejudice are subjective
What does RCT say causes prejudice?
Two groups in competition
What are the groups competing for?
Scarce resources
RCT says prejudice occurs more when
Only one group can win (a zero sum game)
Prejudice occurs between
In groups and out-groups who are in competition
What reduces prejudice?
A superordinate goal
Superordinate goals are
Shared goals between two groups they must work on together to achieve a benefit
What are some ways the groups might show prejudice?
Name calling, ingroup solidarity
What study supports RCT?
Sherif- the boys were put in competition and it lead to name calling and fighting, giving them superordinate goals like fixing the water supply made them friendly
What does RCT not account for in explaining prejudice?
Personality factors like Authoritarian personality which makes you more prejudice
Why is Social Identity theory better than RCT?
It can explain prejudice where no competition occurs i.e. homophobia
Why does Tajfels research disagree with RCT?
It showed prejudice occurred between the boys even if there was no direct competition
Does this explain real world examples of prejudice?
Yes, things like conflict between countries or towards migrants when there is percieved competition
Why does Duckitt criticise RCT?
Duckitt suggests conflict often occurs between powerful majority and weaker minority groups so they’re not in ‘real competition’
What does Social identity theory says causes prejudice?
The existence of groups
What are the order of the stages in social identity theory?
Categorisation, Identification, Comparison
Define social categorisation
When you classify yourself as part of a group with others and others as not in the group
Define social identification
When you adopt the norms, beliefs and identity of the group i.e. dressing the same
Define social comparison
When you put down the other group to boost your self esteem
What are two types of social comparison?
In group favouritism i.e. positive distinctivenss, Negative outgroup bias i.e. social denigration
How does Sherif’s study support SIT?
Because the presence of groups was enough to cause conflict when the groups found out about each other
What did Tajfel’s study show?
That boys were willing to show in-group favouritism (in assigning money) for a minimal group they had been put in
Why is SIT better than RCT?
Because it can explain types of prejudice where there is no competition e.g. homophobia
What is a problem with Identity theory (or what does it not account for)?
It is situational in nature and so ignores personality factors like authoritarian personality which cause prejudice
Is Social identity theory a useful theory to explain prejudice
Yes- it can explain real life examples of prejudice like homophobia or racism as they involve ingroups and outgroups going through these stages
Why could Sherif be said to conflict with Identity theory?
It is better explained by RCT that the boys were in competition and superordinate goals were used to reduce prejudice even if the groups still existed
How does Jane Elliot support Identity theory?
The children with brown eyes and blue eyes quickly moved to name calling and fighting after being put in groups
What was the aim of Sherifs study?
To test in-group behaviours development to include related out-group hostility (through competition) and how this can be reduced (using a super-ordinate goal).
Which participants took part in the study?
22 boys from Oklahoma who were 11 years old
The participants were similar on
IQ and sporting ability
Phase 1 was known as?
Ingroup formation stage
What happened in Phase 1?
The groups were kept separate and were left to bond with tasks like camping
Phase 2 was known as?
the friction phase
What are the results of Phase 1?
The boys built social norms and hierarchies etc
Phase 3 was known as?
Integration phase
What happened in phase 2?
The boys took part in a tournament including tug of war baseball and bean counting
What were the results of phase 2?
The rattlers and the eagles showed prejudice like name calling scuffles flag burnings and raids
Did bringing the boys together to watch a film reduce their prejudice in phase 2/3?
No- they boys showed prejudice making comments like ladies first
What happened in stage 3 of Sherif?
The boys were given superordinate goals like fixing the watersupply together so they could access clean water
What were the results of Phase 3?
Boys were actively seeking opportunities to mingle entertain and treat each other.
What percentage change did we see in rattlers who saw eagles as a friend from S2 to S3?
30pc from 6.4 to 36.4
Which four research methods were used in the study?
Tape recordings Observations Sociometric data and tasks like the bean counting
What are three superordinate goals?
Fix the water supply Pull the broken down truck Chip in to pay for a movie
Sherif is not generalisable because
It is both Androcentric and Ethnocentric because it only uses 22 american boys. This means the results about prejudice caused by competition dont apply to females or other cultures
Sherif is reliable because
Yes because there were certain things that were standardised like the tasks and the measures like the tape recordings
Sherif is not reliable because?
Much of what happened at the camp couldnt be standardised e.g. extraneous variables in the summer camp making it hard to repeat the same
What are three strengths for validity of Sherifs study?
High ecological validity Reduced Demand Characteristics and Triangulation of data
Why is Sherif high in ecological validity?
The summer camp is a natural setting for the boys so their prejudice behaviour might be like what they would show in real life
How did this study get triangualtion of data?
The four measurements of the boys mean the results can be checked against each other giving concurrent validity
Does this study have an issue with extraneous variables?
Yes because there are factors in the summer camp beyond the competition/superordinate goals which could effect the boys e.g. interactions with the counsellors
Does this study have high or low demand characteristics?
Low Demand Characteristics because the boys didnt know they were being studied about prejudice
Does this study have issues with informed consent?
Yes because the boys didnt know they were being studied/why their parents had however given some level of consent
Does this study have an issue with protection from harm?
Yes because the children got into fights which could have resulted in injuries
Does this study have issues with withdrawal?
To some degree some boys did leave because they were homesick but they didnt know they were being studied which means they couldnt leave the study
What is the situational factor which influences prejudice
Social Norms
Social norms are
An agreed or accepted way of behaving in society
How do social norms cause prejudice
If the social norms make racism/sexism etc acceptable it increases that behaviour
Agreeableness from the Big 5 is defined as
The measure of ones trusting and helpful nature.
What is the relationship between Agreeableness and Prejudice
If someone is high in agreeableness they are more likely to be prejudiced.
What is openness to experience?
receptivity to new ideas and new experiences
Conscientiousness is?
The tendency to be organised, dependable and somewhat rigid or inflexible
What do we expect about conscientiousness and prejudice?
If someone is high in conscientiousness they are more likely to be prejudiced.
What do we expect about RWA/Authoritarian personality and prejudice?
If someone is low in Right Wing Authority they are more likely to be prejudice.
What is the relationship between SDO and prejudice?
If someone is low in Social Dominance Orientation they are less likely to be prejudice.
Someone with an Authoritarian personality is more likely to be prejudice because
They are hostile to those they see as inferior/don’t fit their conventional beliefs and might see the world as us and them
What is Social Dominance Oritentation?
People who believe in hierarchies in society and are competitive to be ahead of others and see those below them as competition
What is culture?
The norms shared by a group of people from a similar demographic background e.g. nationality
What is a collectivist culture?
A culture which puts the group wellbeing above individual wellbeing
What is an individualistic culture?
A culture which puts the individual rights and wellbeing above the group
Collectivist cultures are more prejudice than individualistic cultures towards outgroups.
True- as those who are different are disliked as they don’t fit the good of the group
What is an assimilative society?
A culture which thinks cultural differences between its people should be minimised to cause cohesion i.e. the minority should change to be like the majority
What is a multi-cultural culture?
A culture which thinks differences between cultures within itself should be celebrated i.e. the minority doesn’t need to change
What is an assimilative culture?
A culture which thinks cultural differences between its people should be minimised to cause cohesion i.e. the minority should change to be like the majority
Which culture would you expect to see more prejudice in?
Assimilative culture- because those who are different are looked down on
What are the results of Cohrs about prejudice and personality?
Openness negatively correlates with prejudice. RWA positively correlates with prejudice. SDO positively correlates with prejudice
What is an issue with using questionnaires to study personality?
They suffer from social desirability so people might lie to give different answers lowering validity
What did Lippa and Arad find?
Authoritarianism correlated strongly with negative attitudes toward homosexuality & SDO with prejudice attitudes towards gender inequality
What did Guimond find?
Multicultural socieites were less prejudice than assimilative ones
What did Fujimoto find?
Collectivist cultures were more prejudice than individualistic ones
What did Kleugel find?
Culture had no impact on prejudice
What did Sechrist and Stangor find?
Manipulating group norms making people think others are commonly racist increased their prejudice behaviour sitting distance from an ethnic minority
What did Al-Zahrani and Kaplowitz (1993) find?
that in a comparison of Saudi who are collectivist and American who are individualist people. Saudis tended to show more out-group-derogation
What did Adorno find?
those with an authoritarian personality were more likely to be hostile to people not in their group who are considered to be of an inferior status
What do we mean by personality?
A series of enduring traits about a person which are consistent across situations
What are the personality traits which effect obedience?
Locus of Control, Empathy and Authoritarian personality/Right Wing Authoritarianism
What are the situational factors which effect obedience?
1) Momentum of compliance 2) Proximity 3) Legitimacy of authority 4) Responsibility in the situation
What is gender in terms of obedience research?
The traits of being male or female which is partially innate via biology and partially through socialisation
What is meant by momentum of compliance?
Starting with small requests then gradually increasing them.
What is empathy?
Your ability to feel emotions of others
What is an internal and external locus of control?
Internal you think you are responsible for your behaviour and external you think it is other factors
How does Locus of Control impact obedience?
People with an internal locus of control will be less obedient.
How does proximity impact obedience?
The closer the authority figure is when giving the order, the more obedient the target will be.
What is an issue with looking at personality as an influence on obedience?
They’re often measured through self-reports making them less valid due to social desirability
Which study shows the importance of an authority figure?
Milgram variation 13
What is used to measure Authoritarian Personality?
The F-Scale
What did Milgram & Elms find?
That the more obedient participants in Milgram’s research scored higher on authoritarian personality.
How does internal locus of control impact obedience?
You believe you are responsible for your own actions so are less influenced by authority figures.
What did Burger find about empathy?
Burger found that more empathetic people protested more but were no less obedient.
What did Sheridan & King find?
That females were more obedient than males when asked to electrocute puppies.
What is a collectivist culture and what impact does this have on obedience?
A culture where the group wishes are more important than the individual wishes and it makes them more obedient as they forgo their own wishes to obey for the group benefit
What did Burger find about gender and obedience?
Gender had little to no impact on obedience levels
What did Kilham and Mann find?
Women were less obedient (16pc vs 40pc)
What did Dambrun & Vatine (2010) find?
Those high in the trait of authoritarian personality were less likely to withdraw and more likely to punish.
What situational factor did the study of Sedekides and Jackson support?
Authority figure- the zoo keeper got higher obedience than a normally dressed man
What did Smith and Bond find?
Collectivist cultures were more obedient than individualistic ones
When one of Milgrams variations asked participants to sign a contract before taking part in the research which stated they were taking part of their own free will and no legal responsibility would be taken by Yale University, what happened?
Obedience fell
What study can be used to demonstrate momentum of compliance?
Milgram with the shock generator going up in 15v increments
Which study supports proximity as a factor?
Milgram variation 7 with the telephone study where 22.5pc obeyed
What is your key question for Social Psychology?
How can Social Psychology explain cult behaviour?
What is AO1 for your Social key question?
What cults are and why they are an issue for society
What is AO2 for your key question?
Applying Social Psychology theories to explain cult behaviour
Give an example of a cult and what happened
People’s Temple of San Francisco, a cult whose members committed mass suicide in Guyana.
The Manson family killed people on behalf of their leader Charles Manson.
What is a cult?
a social group with socially deviant or novel beliefs and practice
follow a strong, living leader and make absolute claims about the leader’s abilities, character, or knowledge
Often financially dependent
What is AO3 for your Social key question?
Evaluation of how well our Social theories explain cult behaviour
Why are cults a key issue for society?
There are over 500 active cults within the UK.
We need to be aware of what causes individuals to join and remain in cults in order to prevent the horrors that have occurred in cults previously.
How can agency theory explain cult behaviour?
the cult members are in the agentic state and obey the leader as they view them as an authority figure
give up their free-will to avoid moral strain of going against their conscience.
How can social impact theory explain cult behaviour?
Strength can be seen because they view the cult leader as being an authority figure (often with divine links).
Immediacy can be seen as an issue because they all live together and thus have an impact.
Number is important because they end up surrounded by believers which means they have a hihh impact
How can social identity theory explain cult behaviour?
Cult members view themselves as the ingroup and anyone not in the cult as the outgroup.
May show identification by dressing the same, having the same beliefs etc.
Social comparison
What did Bromley find and why is this a weakness?
studied the Unification Church and found only 5% were still working with the church 1 year later.
Suggests cults are not an issue in society.
Describe the aim of your practical investigation for Social Psychology
To find out whether there are differences in the levels of obedience between men and women.
State an alternative hypothesis for your social practical
There will be a difference in the levels of obedience (measured on an obedience questionnaire) between men and women.
State a null hypothesis for your social practical
There will be no difference in the levels of obedience (measured on an obedience questionnaire) between men and women.
What was the sample for your social practical?
15 males and 15 females from the north east of England
What was the procedure for your social practical?
- A questionnaire was created after brain storming key factors linking to obedience. Both likert scale and open questions were included such as “Would you pick up rubbish if a teacher told you to? Yes/No”
- Once written, the questionnaire was piloted to ensure the right questions were being asked, and then, once the pilot study had confirmed the questions were appropriate, they were handed out using opportunity sampling.
- Once the questionnaire was completed participants were thanked for their time, and debriefed about the nature of the study.
What were the results for your social practical?
Mean obedience score (out of 20) for males - 14.9
Mean obedience score (out of 20) for females - 16.5
Standard deviation for males - 2.71
Standard deviation for females - 1.96
What is a strength of your social practical in terms of reliability?
- The questionnaire about obedience is standardised to all participants which means the study is able to be replicated easily to see if the results about gender differences in obedience is reliable
- The obedience questionnaire used closed questions like likert scales which provide quantitative data so that you can easily compare and analyse the differences between genders in terms of obedience.
What is a strength of your social practical in terms of ethics?
- participants had informed consent, right to withdraw and were debriefed after they had completed the questionnaire about obedience.
- Questionnaires were confidential (which makes it more ethical) but this also means people are less likely to lie about their obedience, this improves the validity of the study as they’re not suffering from social desirability.
What is a weakness of the sampling technique used in your social practical?
- The sample was collected using opportunity sampling from friends and family so may not be generalisable as they share characteristics which might affect their obedience. This means that the results about obedience differences between the genders might be less representative of a wider population’s obedience.
What is a weakness of your social practical in terms of validity?
- Since we are asking questions about their levels of obedience they may suffer from social desirability in their answers and lie
- A problem with the open questions on the obedience questionnaire is that the responses of the participants (and themes between them) is the researcher could be subjective in how they interpret it
