Social (12-14%) Flashcards
What is social psychology?
The study of how people relate to and influence each other
Who did the first official social psychology experiment and what was the experiment?
Normal Triplett studied bicyclists and found that they performed better when paced by others than when bicycling alone.
What is “life space”
the collection of forces upon an individual
Who is considered to be the founder of social psychology?
Kurt Lewin
Who founded attribution theory?
Fritz Heider
What does balance theory state?
That people will try to make their feelings and/or actions appear consistent to preserve psychology homeostasis
the psychological desire for consistency is highlighted by what social theory?
Balance theory
The opposite of automatic processing is…
controlled processing
What is controlled processing?
Processing data with systemic, logical, and thoughtful awareness.
When people anticipate more positive than negative outcomes this is called…
Optimism bias
When you think something will take less time than it actually does this is called…
Planning fallacy
What is the overconfidence bias?
Making predictions and judgements about ourselves without considering relevant facts.
What is the technical term for “what if X had happened instead?” type thinking?
Counterfactual thinking
What is it called when we imagine something will happen that is unfeasible when considered realistically?
Magical thinking
What is terror mangement?
The efforts we make to keep our fear of death and an uncontrollable world at bay.
What is expressed by our tone, pitch, and rate of speech is referred to as
Paralanguage
How can one detect deception?
Paying attention to microexpressions, exaggerated facial expressions, and changes in linguistic style.
Who argued that there are 6 basic emotions?
Paul Ekman
What were the 6 basic emotions proposed by Ekman?
sadness, happiness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust
What is FACS coding?
Facial Action Coding system that helps code facial expressions (for instance to figure out if a smile is genuine)
Who proposed that the attributions we make are generally accurate?
Harold Kelley
Kelley said that we base our assessments of attribution on what factors?
1) Consistency
2) Distinctiveness
3) Consensus
Another name for external attribution is…
situational attribution
Another name for internal attribution is
dispositional attribution
Another name for situational attribution is
external attribution
Another name for dispositional attribution is
internal attribution
Another name for the fundamental attribution error is
the correspondence bias
What is the essential element of the fundamental attribution error?
The tendency to assigning a person’s bad behavior to dispositional rather than situational attributions.
What is actor-observe attributional divergence?
The fact that someone doing the behavior is likely to have a different understanding of attribution than someone watching the behavior.
Human’s tendency to interpret our own actions and motives in a positive way, thinking we are better than average, taking credit for successes (while blaming others for failures) is referred to as the
Self-serving attributional bias
A particularly important influence on human behavior is appearing in a way that will be accepted by others and that appears in line with our attitudes. This is referred to as our ___ and we influence it through ____
Self-presentation, impression management
When we incorrectly assume two things have a relationship this is called
An illusory correlation
The belief that most other people think/believe as you do is referred to as the…
False consensus bias
Who studied consistency by showing that if people were told a statement, came up with their own logical explanation for the statement, and then were told that statement was false, that they continued to believe that statement (despite having learned it was false?)
Lee Ross
What is the bias that makes you believe that you knew something all along?
The hindsight bias
Who showed that we only think we know why we do what we do (when we really have no idea)
Richard Nisbett
What is the base-rate fallacy?
Our tendency to overestimate the frequency of things we are the most familiar with?
What is the term for our tendency to overestimate how frequently things we are familiar with occur?
The base rate fallacy
What is the bias that leads to victim blaming?
The just-world bias
What does the just-world bias imply?
That good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people
Who suggested the just world bias?
M.J. Lerner
When people believe they control their own luck this is called…
The illusion of control
Who studied the illusion of control?
Ellen Langer
Oversimplification is likely to lead to what 2 errors?
1) making simple explanations for complex problems
2) holding onto original causal ideas even after receiving new information.
What is an attitude?
A relatively enduring and general evaluation of an object, person, group, issue, or concept on a dimension ranging from negative to positive. Attitudes provide summary evaluations of target objects and are often assumed to be derived from specific beliefs, emotions, and past behaviors associated with those objects.
How does a self-fulfilling prophecy occur?
1) false definition of the situation
2) evokes a new behavior
3) that behavior turns the false definition true
Who came up with the theory of cognitive dissonance?
Leon Festinger
What does the theory of cognitive dissonance propose?
Holding conflicting beliefs results in tension or discomfort, as a result people will change their thoughts, behaviors or beliefs to relieve that tension.
Who came up with self-perception theory?
Daryl Bem
What does self-perception theory suggest?
People are unsure of their beliefs so they take cues from their own behavior.
What is one theory behind why once you start getting paid for something you would normally enjoy doing, you seem to stop enjoying it so much?
overjustification theory
Over-justification theory is an extension of what other theory?
Self-perception theory
What does over-justification theory state?
That if you are getting paid you may assume we must not want to do the thing we are getting paid to do.
Self-monitoring posits what?
When people are paying attention to their own actions they will change their actions to improve self-regulation.
What is “mainstreaming”?
When children with specific challenges are put into classes with children who do not have those challengse.
How does one achieve objective self-awareness?
1) high self-monitoring
2) self-perception
3) internality
4) self-efficacy
How does deindividuation affect self-awareness?
It impairs self-awareness
Ones identity in relationship to others is (related to socially defined categories) is known as one’s
social identity
One’s personal identity includes
the beliefs one has about oneself that have no objective definitions
What is the difference between intergroup and intragroup comparisons
Are you comparing yourself to people in other social groups (intergroup) or people within your own in-group (intragroup)?
What is self-verification?
Trying to get others to agree with our views
What is self-promotion in a social psychology framework?
Presenting our best self to others.
It is harder to self-regulate when your resources, coping skills, or energy are gone. This is called…
Ego depletion
What are the words used regarding social comparisons towards those we think are better than we are versus worse off than we are?
Upward social comparison vs. downward social comparison
when does stereotype threat happen? and what does it cause?
when we are at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about a group we’re considered a part of, and causes us to underperform.
What is the opposite of stereotype threat?
Stereotype boost
Another name for the theory of reasoned action is…
The theory of planned behavior
Another name for the theory of planned behavior is..
The theory of reasoned action
What does the theory of planned behavior say?
People’s behavior about a given situation is determined by their attitude about the situation and social norms
Who came up with the elaboration likelihood model
R. E. Petty and J. T. Cacioppo
What does the elaboration likelihood model and how does it suggest you should persuade people?
People listen and commit to the reasons behind an argument only if they care or invested, otherwise they base their decisions on superficial factors.
So, If people are invested in the argument and can understand it persuasion is the right way to go and the likelihood of permanent change is high. If the audience is unable or unwilling to listen to an argument just make them happy and comfortable and hope some sticks.
The elaboration likelihood model suggests that speakers are more likely to change a listener’s attitude if…
1) They are trustworthy (and/or and expert)
2) They are similar to the listener
3) They are “acceptable” to the listener
4) They are overheard rather than obviously trying to persuade
5) The content is emotional, shocking, or story-driven (anecodotal)
6) The speaker is part of a two-person debate rather than a one-sided argument
What suggests that persuasive communication from a low credibility source becomes more acceptable after the fact?
The sleeper effect
What is the sleeper effect?
The fact that information from a low credibility source may become more acceptable after the fact
What theory suggests it will actually be harder to convince people whose beliefs have been challenged before?
McGuire’s innoculation theory
Blatant attempts to get people to conform can result in….
Reactance
People are more likely to resist conformity if they get
Forwarning
We tend to like people who have what 4 characteristics?
1) Are familiar and close by (Proximity)
2) Physical Attractiveness
3) Similarity
4) Like us back (reciprocity)
Do opposites actually attract?
No
The popular press article “100 questions that will make you fall in love” illustrated which concept of promoting emotional closeness?
Reciprocity of disclosure
The study that correlated people’s nervousness when crossing a bridge to their likelihood of calling an attractive woman illustrated this principle…
The excitation-transfer theory
What is the difference between the mere-exposure effect and the repeated exposure effect
Having any familiarity with something will increase our positive feelings towards it (mere-exposure) while having repeated exposures to it will further increase our positive feelings (repeated exposure).
Who identified the two general kinds of love?
Elaine Hatfield
What are the two kinds of love that Elaine Hatfield identified?
Passionate love (intense longing with profound physiological arousal) and companionate love (affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply entwined).
Who came up with the triangular model of love?
Sternberg
What are the three legs of the triangular model of love?
Intimacy, Passion, and Commitment
What are the possible combinations from the triangular model of love?
Intimacy+Passion=Romantic Love
Intimacy+Commitment=Companionate Love
Passion+Commitment=Fatuous Love
Passion+Commitment+Intimacy=Consumate Love
A secure attachment style is characterized by what two factors?
High self-esteem and high interpersonal trust
An avoidant attachment style is characterized by what two factors?
Low self-esteem and low interpersonal trust
Define stereotype
Preconceived generalized notions people have about particular groups, can lead to prejudice and discrimination.
What is the glass cliff?
When women are put into positions of power when that position carries a risk of failure.
Define tokenism
Admitting few members of a previously excluded group to reduce claims of discrimination.
Define prejudice
negative beliefs and judgements about a group of people based on a social category
Define discrimination
negative treatment based on prejudicial beliefs
What is the formal name for believing that there are only so many slices of pie (and that the pie can’t get bigger)
Zero-sum outcomes
Who showed that win/lose game type competition can trigger serious conflict in a group?
Muzafer Sherif
Who did the robber’s cave experiment?
Muzafer Sherif
What appears to be the most effective way to overcome group conflict?
To give them collective attention to a superordinate goal
What were the three phases of group dynamics in the robber’s cave experiments?
- In-group phase (people bonded with their own groups)
- Friction phase (groups met and become competitive)
- Integration phase (groups work together on a common goal)
What is another name for the implicit bias test?
Bona fide pipeline
What is a physiologic version of the implicit bias test
Bogus pipeline
What is the basis of prejudice?
Ingroup/outgroup bias
The mere exposure effect and repeated exposure effect suggest that what helps decrease conflict?
Contact
Who performed the doll preference studies that were used in Brown vs. Board of Education
Kenneth and Mamie Clark
What did M. Rokeach find about discrimination?
People prefer to be with people who have similar attitudes over people who have similar skin color
Define role
the set of behavioral norms that seem suitable for a particular person
Define social norms
what is considered normal behavior for a particular society
What is the difference between collectivist versus individualist socities
Focus on the common good instead of personal gain.
Who studied the interdependent/independent differences between eastern and western countries?
Hazel Markus
What generalizations did Hazel Markus make about interdependent vs. independent countries?
Interdependent: conformity, modesty, pessimism
Independent: optimism, self-enhancement, individuality
What does gain-loss theory state?
That people act in order to obtain gain and to avoid loss
Do people prefer to obtain gain or to avoid loss?
People are RISK AVERSE which generally shows they prefer to avoid losses
What is the social corollary of gain-loss theory?
social exchange theory (humans interact in ways that maximize reward and minimize costs)
What is the technical term for the fact that the constant exchange of influences between people is a constant factor in our behavior?
Reciprocal interaction
If biking next to others increases your performance this is an example of…
Social facilitation
Who did research on the impact of the presence of others on simple versus complex tasks?
Robert Zajonc
Based on the complexity of the task, when does having others present help you and when does it hinder you?
Simple tasks - presence of others helps us
Complex tasks - presence of others hinders us
When are individuals most likely to conform to a group?
- there is a majority opinion
- the majority is unanimous
- the majority has a high status OR the individual is concerned with their own status
- the situation is in public
- The individual was not previously committed to a previous position
- The individual has low self-esteem
- The individual scores high on a measure of authoritarianism.
Define conformity
going along with real or perceived group pressure
What are different types of conformity
Compliance (go along publicly but not privately) vs. Acceptance (change actions and beliefs to conform)
Define dissenter
Someone who speaks out against the majority
In the Asch studies how often did people conform?
33% of the time
What is the name of the scientist who did the line conformity studies?
Solomon Asch
Who did the shocking obedience studies?
Stanley Milgram
What supported conformity in the Milgram experiment?
- remoteness of the victim
- proximity of the commander
- a legitimate seeming commander
- conformity of other subjects
What % of the Milgram subjects went to the final end of the experiment?
66%
Who ran the Stanford Prison Experiments?
Philip Zimbardo
Was the BBC able to replicate the Stanford Prison Experiment?
No
What was Zimbardo’s contribution to the Milgram studies?
People were willing to administer higher levels of shock to people wearing hoods
Muzafer Sherif found that people’s description of ____ was influenced by other’s descriptions
the autokinetic effect
An economic corollary to the prisoner’s dilemma is…
the trucking company game
What is at the heart of why the prisoner’s dilemma and the trucking company game work?
A lack of trust
Define compliance
the ways in wihch a person tries to get another person to do something
What are some compliance tactics people use?
- Door in the face
- Foot in the door
- Low ball
- That’s not all
- Deadline
- Ingratiation
How does the door in the face compliance technique work?
Ask for what you know you will not get and then “settle” for less (takes advantage of anchoring)
How does the foot-in-the-door compliance technique work?
someone willing to perform a small favor now is willing to perform larger favors later
How does the low-ball compliance technique work?
Someone is offered a lower price at first and the price is raised after they agree
How does the that’s not all compliance technique work?
Sweetening the deal before a person has had a chance to say yes or no
How does ingratiation work to gain compliance?
By using flattery
The woman whose murder is an infamous example of the bystander effect is…
Kitty Genovese
What is a way to guard against social loafing?
When each individual is closely monitored
When you don’t work as hard in a group as you would on your own this is called…
Social loafing
The bystander effect can be made even worse the more people who are present according to this tendency…
the diffusion of responsibility
Who found a positive correlation between antisocial behavior and population density?
Philip Zimbardo
What is the risky shift?
The fact that groups will take greater risks that individuals
What explains the risky shift?
Group polarization (discussions of like minded people strengthen the already dominant point of view)
Who studied group polarization?
James Stoner
Who studied groupthink?
Irving Janis
Define groupthink
conformity in a group results in dysfunctional decision making
When is groupthink more likely to occur?
1) unquestioned beliefs
2) pressure to conform
3) invulnerability
4) censors
5) internal cohesiveness
6) external isolation
7) strong leader
When most people on a college campus believe everyone likes drinking to excess, but privately no one actually agrees with that personally, this is an example of…
Pluralistic ignorance (most people in a group privately disagree with something, but incorrectly believe that most people in the group agree with it)
When does deindividuation occur?
when there is high degree of arousal and low degree of personal responsibility
Compare contrast empathy and sympathy
Empathy is feeling what another person is feeling, sympathy is feeling bad for another person
What hypothesis states that people will help one another simply because they want to help someone in need?
The empathy-altruism hypothesis
What hypothesis states that people act pro-socially because it makes them feel better about themselves?
The negative state relief model
The negative state relief model states what?
That people act prosocially because it makes them feel better about themselves
The empathy-altruism hypothesis states
that people want to help another person in need
What hypothesis states that people help others because they want to feel good (and prosocial action helps them achieve this)
The empathic joy hypothesis
The empathic joy hypothesis states what?
That people behave prosocially because they want to feel good
What hypothesis states that we are more likely to help people from our own family?
Kin selection theory
Does social exclusion increase or decrease our desire to help others?
decrease
Who were two scientists who suggested drive theories of aggression?
Frued and Konrad Lorenz
Why did Konrad Lorenz think there was a drive toward aggression?
He thought there was an instinct to make sure the strongest survived to pass on their genes to the next generation.
Who proposed the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
Dollard and Miller
Who researched the frustration-aggression hypothesis in depth?
Leonard Berkowitz
What does the frustration-aggression hypothesis propose?
That frustration in achieving a goal (no matter how small) leads to the show of aggression.
The general aggression model comes from what framework?
a social learning framework
The general aggression model suggests what about the cause of aggression?
That it is multifactorial including both situational and personal factors
What would the hostile attributional bias susggest
when people perceive hostility in others they are more likely to respond with hostility
Define bullying
Persistent threatening or abusive behavior directed toward those with less power
If you believe you can release your aggression by punching a pillow than you are a proponent of the
catharsis hypothesis
What does the catharsis hypothesis state?
That people can redirect aggressive energy by releasing it in other ways
What does equity theory state?
That people are most comfortable in situations where the rewards and punishments are equal, fitting, or highly logical.
What are two expected outcomes of equity theory?
1) Overbenefitted people tend to feel guilty
2) Random or illogical punishments make people anxious
In addition to his power studies Stanley Milgram also studied…
stimulus overload theory
What does stimulus overload theory explain?
Why urbanites are less prosocial (they don’t need or want more social interaction).
What are two forms of coping with stress?
1) problem focused coping (changing the stressor)
2) emotion-focused coping (changing the response to the stressor)
Who proposed two forms of coping with stress?
Richard Lazarus
What idea combines the impact of social and clinical psychology to address the effects of stress?
The social support network
Who showed the nursing home residents who care for houseplants have better health and lower mortality rates?
J rodin and E langer
What is the idea that people are promoted to their level of incompetence?
The Peter Principle
Who studied the impact of environment (and especially architecture) on behavior?
Stuart Valins
Are students in long corridors or in suite style dorms more stressed and withdrawn?
long corridors = more withdrawn
The idea that people pick up on each others socialization cues (even if they are not from the same social group) is referred to as…
reciprocal socialization
Who was one of the first IO psychologists?
Walter Dill Scott
What did Walter Dill Scott Study?
Personnel testing and selection for the military and applying psychological principles to advertising.
What is it called when any new procedure is applied and it is able to increase productivity?
The Hawthorne Effect
Who discovered the Hawthorne effect?
Harry Landsberger
What does sociotechnical systems refer to?
The method of work design that acknowledges the interaction between people and technology in the workplace.
Workplace design that recognizes the interaction between people and technology is referred to as…
Sociotechnical systems
