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Psychology GRE > Learning (3-5%) > Flashcards

Learning (3-5%) Flashcards

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1
Q

What is forward conditioning?

A

When the neutral stimulus is presented before the unconditioned stimulus.

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2
Q

Technology may be impairing which cognitive abilities?

A

1) situational analysis
2) problem solving
3) information recall
4) attention span & concentration

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3
Q

What are primary punishments?

A

Most species do not have to learn about negative consequences (pain, bitter taste, loud noise, etc.)

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4
Q

Which type of learning is key to Gestalt psychology?

A

Insight

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5
Q

What is another name for incidental learning?

A

Accidental learning

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6
Q

What is stimulus generalization and why is it important?

A

It is the ability to respond the same way to similar enough stimuli (such as a fire alarm.)

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7
Q

Who first described the learning curve?

A

Herman Ebbinghaus

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8
Q

Who was E.L. Thorndike?

A

He proposed the “law of effect” and the theory of “connectionism” after seeing cats can learn complex tasks through trial and error, solving the puzzles faster in the subsequent trials.

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9
Q

Define stimulus

A

Any event an organism reacts to

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10
Q

What is the weakness in theories that postulate drives focus on creating balance or the reduction of drives?

A

Individuals will often seek out stimulation, novel experience, or sometimes even self-destruction.

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11
Q

Who applied the expectancy-value theory to large organizations?

A

Victor Vroom

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12
Q

The approach-avoidance conflict is a conflict related to what?

A

Goal setting

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13
Q

Learning in observational learning occurs through what mechanism?

A

Modeling

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14
Q

What is another term for behavioral shaping?

A

Differential reinforcement of successive approximations

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15
Q

In Pavolv’s experiment what was the unconditioned response?

A

salivation in response to food

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16
Q

In order to learn or perform an individual must first be be sufficiently ___

A

Aroused

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17
Q

How does taste aversion learning differ from other forms of classical conditoning?

A

1) Response only takes one pairing, 2) response takes a very long time to extinguish, if ever.

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18
Q

What is the Yerkes-Dodson effect?

A

That maximum performance is an inverted U curve with lowest performance on extremes of arousal with the best performance somewhere in the middle (though the ideal amount varies by task.)

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19
Q

Define secondary reinforcement

A

A learned reinforcer (often learned through society.)

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20
Q

Who first developed the theory of association?

A

Kurt Lawin

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21
Q

What is undergeneralization?

A

The failure tos generalize a stimulus

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22
Q

Define primary reinforcement

A

When something is natural reinforcing on its own without learning (ie. food)

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23
Q

Who created the hypothetico-deductive model?

A

Clark Hull

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24
Q

Who proposed expectancy-value theory?

A

Edward Tolman

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25
Q

Who proposed the approach-avoidance conflict theory?

A

Neil Miller

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26
Q

What is “autoshaping”

A

An animal uses an apparatus (like a button or bar) to control its own reinforcements.

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27
Q

What is “sensitization” when it comes to learning?

A

Increased sensitivity to the environment following a strong stimulus.

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28
Q

What experiments suggested evidence against the drive reduction theory?

A

Electrical stimulation of pleasure centers of the brain were used as positive reinforcement and animals would perform behaviors to receive the stimulation.

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29
Q

What does the approach-avoidance conflict say about when an individual will approach and when they will avoid?

A

They will approach when a goal seems far away, they will avoid when a goal seems close to being achieved.

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30
Q

What is the goal of punishment?

A

To extinguish an undesired behavior

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31
Q

What is the concept of “preparedness” in classical conditioning?

A

The idea that some associations are made more readily

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32
Q

Why is observational learning NOT a type of associative learning?

A

It does not require any reinforcement, associations, or practice.

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33
Q

What is the order of Maslow’s heirarchy of needs?

A

physiological > safety > love/belonging > self-esteem > self-actualizing

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34
Q

What refers to the characteristics that indicate a person’s ability to learn?

A

Aptitude

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35
Q

Why is Gestalt psychology relevant to insight learning?

A

It is concerned with how people think about and organize elements in relationship to one another.

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36
Q

Which partial reinforcement schedule does little to motivate?

A

The fixed interval schedule

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37
Q

Who discovered the concept of “preparedness” in classical conditioning?

A

John Garcia

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38
Q

How was the existence of latent learning shown?

A

Rats that explore a maze learn the maze well and can run the maze quickly to find food (once provided), even if they’re not being rewarded with food during their training.

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39
Q

What is the difference between habituation and dehabituation?

A

If you remove and reintroduce the stimulus to which the organism had become habituated it will start to notice it again (the organism was dishabituated).

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40
Q

What is another term for “differential reinforcement of successful approximations”?

A

Behavioral shaping

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41
Q

What is “superstitious behavior”

A

Associative learning of an incorrect cause and effect relationship.

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42
Q

What are two types of forward conditioning?

A

Delayed conditioning and trace conditioning.

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43
Q

How does the expectancy-value theory apply to hierarchies within organizations?

A

Those lower in an organization are not likely to expect incentives so are not motivated to achieve them.

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44
Q

In Pavolv’s experiment what was the conditioned response?

A

salivation in response to light or a bell

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45
Q

What is the Premack principle?

A

The idea of motivating yourself to do something you do NOT like to do by rewarding yourself with something you DO like to do afterward.

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46
Q

There are several theories that postulate that people are driven is a desire to have balance with respect to their feelings, ideas, and behaviors. What are these theories?

A

1) Fritz Heider’s balance theory
2) Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum’s congruity theory
3) Leon Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory

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47
Q

What is the difference between delayed and trace conditioning?

A

In trace conditioning, the neutral stimulus has been removed before the unconditioned stimulus is presented. In delayed conditioning, it is still present when the unconditioned stimulus is first presented.

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48
Q

Define learning

A

relatively permanent or stable changes in behavior as the result of experience

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49
Q

Another name for social learning theory is

A

Social cognitive theory

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50
Q

What are some examples of partial reinforcement schedules?

A
  1. Fixed ratio schedule (consistent number of responses)
  2. Variable ratio schedule (variable number of responses)
  3. Fixed interval schedule (the next correct response after a fixed amount of time)
  4. Variable interval schedule (the next correct response after a variable amount of time)
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51
Q

In Pavolv’s experiment what was the neutral stimulus

A

the light or bell

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52
Q

What does nAch mean?

A

Need for Achievement

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53
Q

Who was able to show that “neurons that fire together wire together”?

A

Donald Hebb

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54
Q

Who performed the pleasure stimulation studies in monkeys?

A

M. E. Olds

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55
Q

What is another name for the Garcia effect?

A

Conditioned nausea

56
Q

What is aversive conditioning?

A

Using punishment to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

57
Q

What is stimulus conditioning?

A

When the unconditioned and neutral stimulus are presented at the same time.

58
Q

Which types of motor tasks are easier to learn?

A

Continuous > discrete

59
Q

What are the terms to describe how learning one task will make learning a subsequent tasks either easier or harder?

A

Positive (easier) or negative (harder) transfer

60
Q

Group projects are supposed to foster…

A

Cooperative learning

61
Q

What does “extinction” mean in the context of learning?

A

The reversal of conditioning, often accomplished by disassociation or withholding reinforcement.

62
Q

What are examples of some secondary reinforcers?

A

Money, prestige, verbal praise, awards

63
Q

Who proposed the model of insight learning?

A

Wolfgang Köhler

64
Q

What is another name for a secondary drive? (learning/motivation)

A

An acquired drive

65
Q

What is another name for a primary drive (learning/motivation)

A

An instinctual drive

66
Q

Slot machines are based on which reinforcement schedule?

A

Variable ratio schedule

67
Q

What is the basis of Hull’s theory of motivation?

A

That individuals will do what has worked in the past to satisfy a drive.

68
Q

Who developed the theory of observational learning?

A

Albert Bandura

69
Q

What is “overshadowing” as it refers to learning?

A

In classical conditioning when an animal cannot condition to the stimulus due to the presence of a more prominent stimulus.

70
Q

Which scientist showed that monkeys were better at learning different tasks after having multiple learning experiences?

A

Harry Harlow

71
Q

What does “spontaneous recovery” mean in the context of learning.

A

The reemergence of a behavior without any apparent additional reinforcement or association.

72
Q

There is a model/equation that was designed to try to logically explain the rules that govern behavior. What was this model called?

A

the hypothetico-deductive model

73
Q

The motivation to simply try something new may be called a…

A

exploratory drive

74
Q

What is another name for an acquired drive? (learning/motivation)

A

A secondary drive

75
Q

What is another name for an instinctual drive? (learning/motivation)

A

A primary drive

76
Q

What did John Atkinson say about goal setting?

A

People will aim to set realistic goals with intermediate risk rather than unrealistic high risk goals.

77
Q

What does a typical learning curve look like?

A

There is positive acceleration in the early stages of learning as the rate of learning increases and then it transitions to negative acceleration as the rate of learning decreases

78
Q

What are types of non-associative, non-observational learning?

A

1) Habituation
2) Dishabituation
3) Sensitization
4) Desensitization

79
Q

What is stimulus discrimination and why is it important?

A

It is the ability to tell different stimuli apart and it is important because to respond appropriately to different stimuli we need to be able to tell them apart.

80
Q

What happens during an “extinction burst”?

A

If a behavior has been trained using operant conditioning it may initially be presented MORE often before reaching extinction.

81
Q

In Pavolv’s experiment what was the conditioned stimulus

A

the light or bell once it has been paired with the food

82
Q

What is “chaining” in the context of learning?

A

Linking behaviors together in a row that ultimately results in a reward at the end of the chain.

83
Q

What is another name for accidental learning?

A

Incidental learning

84
Q

Skinner’s first two initials are?

A

B. F.

85
Q

What is involved in punishment?

A

An unwanted behavior results in presentation of a negative stimulus .

86
Q

Define positive reinforcement

A

Adding something desirable to increase the likelihood of a desired response.

87
Q

How does age affect learning?

A

Easiest to learn between 3-20, plateaus between 20-50, declines after 50

88
Q

Define negative reinforcement

A

Removing something undesireable to increase the likelihood of a desired response.

89
Q

What is the premise of social cognitive theory?

A

That individuals learn through their culture what is and isn’t acceptable when interacting in society.

90
Q

The theory of association was the precursor to …

A

Classical conditioning

91
Q

Who came up with the zone of proximal development?

A

Lev Vygotsky

92
Q

Does punishment work?

A

Severe punishment may effectively extinguish undesireable behavior. However, it can have negative consequences.

93
Q

What amount of arousal is best for simple tasks? complex tasks? in general

A

1) high, 2) low, 3) never at extremes

94
Q

What is the significance of vicarious reward or vicarious punishment

A

Witnessing the rewards or punishments others receive may increase or decrease the likelihood of engaging in that behavior.

95
Q

What is another name conditioned nausea

A

The Garcia Effect

96
Q

What were the elements of a Skinner box?

A

1) A lever
2) a hole for food rewards
3) an electrified floor grid

97
Q

What is higher-order conditioning?

A

When conditions start to be stacked on one another. (ie. when a conditioned stimulus (not an unconditioned stimulus) is used to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus.)

98
Q

Who founded the school of behavioralism?

A

John B. Watson

99
Q

What was the motivation model proposed by Hull?

A

That performance = drive * habit

100
Q

What is the difference between positive punishment and negative punishment?

A

In positive punishment something undesired is added, in negative punishment, something desired is taken away.

101
Q

Who wrote the first educational psychology textbook?

A

Thorndike

102
Q

What is key to the ideal of behavioralism?

A

1) That only objective and observable elements are importance to organisms and pyschology
2) That everything can be explained by stimulus-response chains

103
Q

What does “learning to learn” mean?

A

That if you have exposure to different learning experiences, you may be better at learning unrelated tasks as well.

104
Q

The Bobo doll experiments were conducted by

A

Albert Bandura

105
Q

What is “desensitization” when it comes to learning

A

Decreased sensitivity to the environment following the presentation of a strong stimulus

106
Q

What is avoidance conditioning?

A

Teaching the animal to avoid a predictable, unpleasant stimulus.

107
Q

Describe scaffolded learning

A

Give a student an indepent assignment and provide only the assistance or resources beyond the student’s capability, providing less assistance over time to build encourage independence.

108
Q

What is a token economy?

A

Artificial mini economies where people are motivated by secondary reinforcers (tokens, points, tickets) they can exchange for more desirable reinforcers.

109
Q

What is insight learning?

A

As opposed to trial and error or behavioral shaping the solution to a problem occurs at once (a flash of “insight”)

110
Q

Name the term that describes how it is easier to remember something if you are in a similar situation as when you learned the information

A

State dependent learning

111
Q

What is backward conditioning?

A

The neutral stimulus is presented after the unconditioned stimulus is presented.

112
Q

What is the theory of association?

A

Things can be grouped because they occur together in time and space.

113
Q

Pavlov’s dog studies are an example of what kind of learning?

A

Classical conditioning

114
Q

What is the model behind expectancy-value theory?

A

Performance = Expectation * Value

115
Q

Densensitization is often used to treat what?

A

Phobias

116
Q

What is “latent learning”

A

Learning that is “saved for later use” when it will be relevant or needed.

117
Q

Radical behaviorism said that what was NOT important in learning or behavior in animals OR humans?

A

Thoughts or feelings

118
Q

What is the premise behind hedonism?

A

People are motivated solely by what brings the most pleasure and the least pain

119
Q

What are secondary punishments?

A

Consequences that may be less obviously undesireable.

120
Q

A continuous reinforcement schedule involves…

A

Every correct response gets some kind of reinforcement

121
Q

What is one example of “preparedness” for classical conditioning?

A

Conditioned nausea is most likely to be associated with food or drink (as opposed to a light).

122
Q

What is another name for operant conditioning?

A

Instrument conditioning

123
Q

Describe cooperative learning in the zone of proximal development

A

Students are placed with another student who is slightly more advanced, the lower achieving student is able to improve through the interaction.

124
Q

Who was able to show mice had cognitive maps of mazes they could use if specific routes were blocked off?

A

Tolman

125
Q

What is another name for instrument conditioning?

A

Operant conditioning

126
Q

Another name for social cognitive theory is

A

Social learning theory

127
Q

What is escape conditioning?

A

Teaches an animal to perform a desired behavior to get away from an unpredictable, unpleasant stimulus.

128
Q

The Law of Effect was the precursor to…

A

Operant conditioning

129
Q

Which researchers proposed people are motivated by a need for achievement (or to avoid failure)?

A

Henry Murray and David McClelland

130
Q

Who did studies on latent learning?

A

Edward C. Tolman

131
Q

Is there proof that violent movies, video games, TV shows increase violence in real life?

A

There is a correlation but causation has not been proven.

132
Q

What was Pavlov’s first name?

A

Ivan

133
Q

What are the pros and cons of a continuous reinforcement schedule?

A

Fastest learning, fragile learning

134
Q

What is the basis of expectancy-value theory?

A

People are motivated 1) by goals they think they will actually meet 2) important goals.

135
Q

In Pavolv’s experiment what was the unconditioned stimulus?

A

the food

136
Q

Describe purposive behaviorism

A

the idea that behavioral acts have a goal or purpose that selects and guides the behavioral sequence until the goal or purpose is attained

Psychology GRE (10 decks)

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