Learning (3-5%) Flashcards
What is forward conditioning?
When the neutral stimulus is presented before the unconditioned stimulus.
Technology may be impairing which cognitive abilities?
1) situational analysis
2) problem solving
3) information recall
4) attention span & concentration
What are primary punishments?
Most species do not have to learn about negative consequences (pain, bitter taste, loud noise, etc.)
Which type of learning is key to Gestalt psychology?
Insight
What is another name for incidental learning?
Accidental learning
What is stimulus generalization and why is it important?
It is the ability to respond the same way to similar enough stimuli (such as a fire alarm.)
Who first described the learning curve?
Herman Ebbinghaus
Who was E.L. Thorndike?
He proposed the “law of effect” and the theory of “connectionism” after seeing cats can learn complex tasks through trial and error, solving the puzzles faster in the subsequent trials.
Define stimulus
Any event an organism reacts to
What is the weakness in theories that postulate drives focus on creating balance or the reduction of drives?
Individuals will often seek out stimulation, novel experience, or sometimes even self-destruction.
Who applied the expectancy-value theory to large organizations?
Victor Vroom
The approach-avoidance conflict is a conflict related to what?
Goal setting
Learning in observational learning occurs through what mechanism?
Modeling
What is another term for behavioral shaping?
Differential reinforcement of successive approximations
In Pavolv’s experiment what was the unconditioned response?
salivation in response to food
In order to learn or perform an individual must first be be sufficiently ___
Aroused
How does taste aversion learning differ from other forms of classical conditoning?
1) Response only takes one pairing, 2) response takes a very long time to extinguish, if ever.
What is the Yerkes-Dodson effect?
That maximum performance is an inverted U curve with lowest performance on extremes of arousal with the best performance somewhere in the middle (though the ideal amount varies by task.)
Define secondary reinforcement
A learned reinforcer (often learned through society.)
Who first developed the theory of association?
Kurt Lawin
What is undergeneralization?
The failure tos generalize a stimulus
Define primary reinforcement
When something is natural reinforcing on its own without learning (ie. food)
Who created the hypothetico-deductive model?
Clark Hull
Who proposed expectancy-value theory?
Edward Tolman
Who proposed the approach-avoidance conflict theory?
Neil Miller
What is “autoshaping”
An animal uses an apparatus (like a button or bar) to control its own reinforcements.
What is “sensitization” when it comes to learning?
Increased sensitivity to the environment following a strong stimulus.
What experiments suggested evidence against the drive reduction theory?
Electrical stimulation of pleasure centers of the brain were used as positive reinforcement and animals would perform behaviors to receive the stimulation.
What does the approach-avoidance conflict say about when an individual will approach and when they will avoid?
They will approach when a goal seems far away, they will avoid when a goal seems close to being achieved.
What is the goal of punishment?
To extinguish an undesired behavior
What is the concept of “preparedness” in classical conditioning?
The idea that some associations are made more readily
Why is observational learning NOT a type of associative learning?
It does not require any reinforcement, associations, or practice.
What is the order of Maslow’s heirarchy of needs?
physiological > safety > love/belonging > self-esteem > self-actualizing
What refers to the characteristics that indicate a person’s ability to learn?
Aptitude
Why is Gestalt psychology relevant to insight learning?
It is concerned with how people think about and organize elements in relationship to one another.
Which partial reinforcement schedule does little to motivate?
The fixed interval schedule
Who discovered the concept of “preparedness” in classical conditioning?
John Garcia
How was the existence of latent learning shown?
Rats that explore a maze learn the maze well and can run the maze quickly to find food (once provided), even if they’re not being rewarded with food during their training.
What is the difference between habituation and dehabituation?
If you remove and reintroduce the stimulus to which the organism had become habituated it will start to notice it again (the organism was dishabituated).
What is another term for “differential reinforcement of successful approximations”?
Behavioral shaping
What is “superstitious behavior”
Associative learning of an incorrect cause and effect relationship.
What are two types of forward conditioning?
Delayed conditioning and trace conditioning.
How does the expectancy-value theory apply to hierarchies within organizations?
Those lower in an organization are not likely to expect incentives so are not motivated to achieve them.
In Pavolv’s experiment what was the conditioned response?
salivation in response to light or a bell
What is the Premack principle?
The idea of motivating yourself to do something you do NOT like to do by rewarding yourself with something you DO like to do afterward.
There are several theories that postulate that people are driven is a desire to have balance with respect to their feelings, ideas, and behaviors. What are these theories?
1) Fritz Heider’s balance theory
2) Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum’s congruity theory
3) Leon Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory
What is the difference between delayed and trace conditioning?
In trace conditioning, the neutral stimulus has been removed before the unconditioned stimulus is presented. In delayed conditioning, it is still present when the unconditioned stimulus is first presented.
Define learning
relatively permanent or stable changes in behavior as the result of experience
Another name for social learning theory is
Social cognitive theory
What are some examples of partial reinforcement schedules?
- Fixed ratio schedule (consistent number of responses)
- Variable ratio schedule (variable number of responses)
- Fixed interval schedule (the next correct response after a fixed amount of time)
- Variable interval schedule (the next correct response after a variable amount of time)
In Pavolv’s experiment what was the neutral stimulus
the light or bell
What does nAch mean?
Need for Achievement
Who was able to show that “neurons that fire together wire together”?
Donald Hebb
Who performed the pleasure stimulation studies in monkeys?
M. E. Olds
What is another name for the Garcia effect?
Conditioned nausea
What is aversive conditioning?
Using punishment to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
What is stimulus conditioning?
When the unconditioned and neutral stimulus are presented at the same time.
Which types of motor tasks are easier to learn?
Continuous > discrete
What are the terms to describe how learning one task will make learning a subsequent tasks either easier or harder?
Positive (easier) or negative (harder) transfer
Group projects are supposed to foster…
Cooperative learning
What does “extinction” mean in the context of learning?
The reversal of conditioning, often accomplished by disassociation or withholding reinforcement.
What are examples of some secondary reinforcers?
Money, prestige, verbal praise, awards
Who proposed the model of insight learning?
Wolfgang Köhler
What is another name for a secondary drive? (learning/motivation)
An acquired drive
What is another name for a primary drive (learning/motivation)
An instinctual drive
Slot machines are based on which reinforcement schedule?
Variable ratio schedule
What is the basis of Hull’s theory of motivation?
That individuals will do what has worked in the past to satisfy a drive.
Who developed the theory of observational learning?
Albert Bandura
What is “overshadowing” as it refers to learning?
In classical conditioning when an animal cannot condition to the stimulus due to the presence of a more prominent stimulus.
Which scientist showed that monkeys were better at learning different tasks after having multiple learning experiences?
Harry Harlow
What does “spontaneous recovery” mean in the context of learning.
The reemergence of a behavior without any apparent additional reinforcement or association.
There is a model/equation that was designed to try to logically explain the rules that govern behavior. What was this model called?
the hypothetico-deductive model
The motivation to simply try something new may be called a…
exploratory drive
What is another name for an acquired drive? (learning/motivation)
A secondary drive
What is another name for an instinctual drive? (learning/motivation)
A primary drive
What did John Atkinson say about goal setting?
People will aim to set realistic goals with intermediate risk rather than unrealistic high risk goals.
What does a typical learning curve look like?
There is positive acceleration in the early stages of learning as the rate of learning increases and then it transitions to negative acceleration as the rate of learning decreases
What are types of non-associative, non-observational learning?
1) Habituation
2) Dishabituation
3) Sensitization
4) Desensitization
What is stimulus discrimination and why is it important?
It is the ability to tell different stimuli apart and it is important because to respond appropriately to different stimuli we need to be able to tell them apart.
What happens during an “extinction burst”?
If a behavior has been trained using operant conditioning it may initially be presented MORE often before reaching extinction.
In Pavolv’s experiment what was the conditioned stimulus
the light or bell once it has been paired with the food
What is “chaining” in the context of learning?
Linking behaviors together in a row that ultimately results in a reward at the end of the chain.
What is another name for accidental learning?
Incidental learning
Skinner’s first two initials are?
B. F.
What is involved in punishment?
An unwanted behavior results in presentation of a negative stimulus .
Define positive reinforcement
Adding something desirable to increase the likelihood of a desired response.
How does age affect learning?
Easiest to learn between 3-20, plateaus between 20-50, declines after 50
Define negative reinforcement
Removing something undesireable to increase the likelihood of a desired response.
What is the premise of social cognitive theory?
That individuals learn through their culture what is and isn’t acceptable when interacting in society.
The theory of association was the precursor to …
Classical conditioning
Who came up with the zone of proximal development?
Lev Vygotsky
Does punishment work?
Severe punishment may effectively extinguish undesireable behavior. However, it can have negative consequences.
What amount of arousal is best for simple tasks? complex tasks? in general
1) high, 2) low, 3) never at extremes
What is the significance of vicarious reward or vicarious punishment
Witnessing the rewards or punishments others receive may increase or decrease the likelihood of engaging in that behavior.
What is another name conditioned nausea
The Garcia Effect
What were the elements of a Skinner box?
1) A lever
2) a hole for food rewards
3) an electrified floor grid
What is higher-order conditioning?
When conditions start to be stacked on one another. (ie. when a conditioned stimulus (not an unconditioned stimulus) is used to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus.)
Who founded the school of behavioralism?
John B. Watson
What was the motivation model proposed by Hull?
That performance = drive * habit
What is the difference between positive punishment and negative punishment?
In positive punishment something undesired is added, in negative punishment, something desired is taken away.
Who wrote the first educational psychology textbook?
Thorndike
What is key to the ideal of behavioralism?
1) That only objective and observable elements are importance to organisms and pyschology
2) That everything can be explained by stimulus-response chains
What does “learning to learn” mean?
That if you have exposure to different learning experiences, you may be better at learning unrelated tasks as well.
The Bobo doll experiments were conducted by
Albert Bandura
What is “desensitization” when it comes to learning
Decreased sensitivity to the environment following the presentation of a strong stimulus
What is avoidance conditioning?
Teaching the animal to avoid a predictable, unpleasant stimulus.
Describe scaffolded learning
Give a student an indepent assignment and provide only the assistance or resources beyond the student’s capability, providing less assistance over time to build encourage independence.
What is a token economy?
Artificial mini economies where people are motivated by secondary reinforcers (tokens, points, tickets) they can exchange for more desirable reinforcers.
What is insight learning?
As opposed to trial and error or behavioral shaping the solution to a problem occurs at once (a flash of “insight”)
Name the term that describes how it is easier to remember something if you are in a similar situation as when you learned the information
State dependent learning
What is backward conditioning?
The neutral stimulus is presented after the unconditioned stimulus is presented.
What is the theory of association?
Things can be grouped because they occur together in time and space.
Pavlov’s dog studies are an example of what kind of learning?
Classical conditioning
What is the model behind expectancy-value theory?
Performance = Expectation * Value
Densensitization is often used to treat what?
Phobias
What is “latent learning”
Learning that is “saved for later use” when it will be relevant or needed.
Radical behaviorism said that what was NOT important in learning or behavior in animals OR humans?
Thoughts or feelings
What is the premise behind hedonism?
People are motivated solely by what brings the most pleasure and the least pain
What are secondary punishments?
Consequences that may be less obviously undesireable.
A continuous reinforcement schedule involves…
Every correct response gets some kind of reinforcement
What is one example of “preparedness” for classical conditioning?
Conditioned nausea is most likely to be associated with food or drink (as opposed to a light).
What is another name for operant conditioning?
Instrument conditioning
Describe cooperative learning in the zone of proximal development
Students are placed with another student who is slightly more advanced, the lower achieving student is able to improve through the interaction.
Who was able to show mice had cognitive maps of mazes they could use if specific routes were blocked off?
Tolman
What is another name for instrument conditioning?
Operant conditioning
Another name for social cognitive theory is
Social learning theory
What is escape conditioning?
Teaches an animal to perform a desired behavior to get away from an unpredictable, unpleasant stimulus.
The Law of Effect was the precursor to…
Operant conditioning
Which researchers proposed people are motivated by a need for achievement (or to avoid failure)?
Henry Murray and David McClelland
Who did studies on latent learning?
Edward C. Tolman
Is there proof that violent movies, video games, TV shows increase violence in real life?
There is a correlation but causation has not been proven.
What was Pavlov’s first name?
Ivan
What are the pros and cons of a continuous reinforcement schedule?
Fastest learning, fragile learning
What is the basis of expectancy-value theory?
People are motivated 1) by goals they think they will actually meet 2) important goals.
In Pavolv’s experiment what was the unconditioned stimulus?
the food
Describe purposive behaviorism
the idea that behavioral acts have a goal or purpose that selects and guides the behavioral sequence until the goal or purpose is attained
