Developmental (12-14%) Flashcards
What is developmental psychology?
changes and transitions that follow physical growth and maturation
what is the study of animal behavior called?
ethology
Which three major thinkers in ethnology shared the nobel prize in 1973?
Konrad Lorenz
Nikolaas Tinbergen
Karl von Frisch
Who was the founder of ethology?
Konrad Lorenz
What are the three areas of research Konrad Lorenz is best known for?
1) Imprinting
2) Animal Aggression
3) Releasing stimuli
What are some of the characteristics common to imprinting
1) Young attach to the first moving object they see after birth.
2) Most commonly displayed by a following response
3) Imprinting is subject a sensitive period (after which imprinting does not occur)
What did Konrad Lorenz say about aggression?
That aggressive behavior is instinctual rather than learned and that even human human intraspecies aggression can be explained through survival needs.
What are two other words for releasing stimuli
releasers, sign stimuli
What do releasing stimuli do?
A stimuli that elicits a fixed action pattern.
Generally defined, what is a fixed action pattern?
An automatic, instinctual chain of behaviors that occur after an individual encounters a releasing stimuli.
What are the 4 attributes of a fixed action pattern?
1) They are uniform,
2) They are performed by most members of the species
3) They are more complex than simple reflexes
4) Cannot be interrupted
Who continued Konrad Lorenz’s work on releasing stimuli?
Nikolaas Tinbergen
Who studied sickleback fishes fixed action patterns?
Nikolaas Tinbergen
Who studied herring gull chicks fixed action patterns?
Nikolaas Tinbergen
What is Nikolaas Tinbergen known for?
Studying models in natural settings
What is the releasing stimuli for sickleback fish?
Their red belly
What is the releasing stimuli for the herring gull chickens?
The red spot on their bill
The studying of the herring gull chicks also highlighted what concept about sign stimuli?
Supernormal sign stimuli (a high contrast bill and red spot)
Who discovered the dance of honeybees?
Karl von Frisch
Karl von Frisch is best known for studying what two things?
The dance of honeybees and the senses of fish
Who coined the term fight or flight?
Walter Cannon
Who proposed the idea of homeostasis?
Walter Cannon
What is homeostasis?
The internal regulation of a body to maintain equilibrium
Walter Cannon is best known for proposing what two ideas?
Fight or Flight
Homeostasis
Define haploid vs. diploid
haploid cells (mostly gametes like sperm and ovum) contain a single set of chromosomes (23 in humans) versus diploid cells (almost all other cells) contain two sets of chromosomes.
the fertilized egg cell is called the
zygote
define genotype
the total of all genetic material that the offspring receives
define allele
an alternate form of a gene that occupies a given position on each of a pair of homologous chromosomes
define genetic drift
the way particular genotypes are selected out or completely eliminated from a population over time
why is natural selection thought to occur?
there are more animals born than will survive to maturity, individuals best suited to the environment and to reproduction are most likely to pass on their genes.
what two factors make up evolutionary “fitness”?
1) ability to survive
2) ability to reproduce
define inclusive fitness
animals are invested not only in the survival of their own genes, but in the genes of their kin.
Taking care of offspring, some forms of prosocial behavior, and sounding alarm calls are explained by
kin selection
What 3 factors help define innate or instinctual behaviors?
1) present in all normal members of a species
2) stereotyped throughout the members of a species, even when performed for the first time
3) independent of learning or experience
A behavior may be instinctual and yet _____ of that behavior may be learned.
the performance (can they perform it WELL)
define altruism
behavior that solely benefits another
In what ways is altruism compatible with natural selection?
Reciprocal altruism, or if the benefit to the group outweighs the cost
What is the purpose of courting behaviors?
To attract a mate and isolating a male of the appropriate species
What is the period during which the female of a species is sexually receptive called?
Estrus
Does natural selection select for or against inbreeding?
Against
Define evolutionary mimicry
A evolved form of deception
What is instinctual drift?
When a trained for forced response is replaced with a natural or instinctive response
What organ detects pheromones?
The vomeronasal organ
What are pheromones?
Chemicals used for communicatino
What is the mechanism that prevents interbreeding between different species called?
Reproductive isolating mechanisms
What are the 4 reproductive isolating mechanisms?
1) Behavioral isolation
2) Geographic isolation
3) Mechanical isolation
4) Isolation by season
How does behavioral reproductive isolation work?
display or courtship behavior allows organisms to identify mates within their own species. Only members of a specific species will recognize the courtship behavior.
How does geographic reproductive isolation work?
Different species breed in different areas
How does mechanical reproductive isolation work?
incompatible genital structures make interbreeding difficult to impossible.
How does reproductive isolation by season work?
Potentially compatible species mate during different seasons.
How does sexual selection differ from natural selection?
It focuses on which individuals are most likely to be chosen as a mate, rather than those who are most likely to survive.
What is the term that refers to the structural differences between the sexes?
Sexual dimorphism
When the behavior of different species is compared this is referred to as…
Comparative psychology
What honeybee dance indicates that food is nearby? Which that food is farther away?
Round dance = food extremely nearby
Waggle dance = food is far away
How do elements of a honey bees waggle dance correlate with the location of food
1) The longer the dance, the farther away it is
2) The more vigorous the displace, the better the food
3) The angle of the dance against a vertical indicates the angle between the sun and the food source.
The waggle dance is not only used by honeybees to communicate about food sources but also about …
Potential nesting sites
What do bees use as navigational tools?
1) the sun
2) landmarks
3) polarized light
4) magnetic fields
When does the queen bee lay eggs?
In the spring
Does a queen bee stay in her hive forever?
No, she leaves each brooding season for a new hive site while a new queen takes over.
What is one major factors that remains unknown about honey bees?
How they know to return to the same mating site each year even though no bees survive year to year.
The markers that are visible to honeybees on certain flowers in the spectrum of ultraviolent light are called…
honeyguides
What is involved in “map and compass” navigation?
A combined use of landmarks with navigational tools like the sun or stars
What is an indicator of “true” navigation
An animal can find their goal from any position and without any landmarks (so even if they are displaced from their original location, they can still find their way)
What navigational cues may serve as compasses for animals?
1) atmospheric pressure (pigeons)
2) infrasound, ie low frequency sounds from surf (pigeons)
3) magnetic senses (pigeons, bees)
4) the sun (pigeons and bees)
5) stars (many birds)
6) polarized light (bees)
How do owls navigate at night?
They have hearing that is better at determining the elevation of a sound because of the assymetry of their ears.
Who did the studies with developmental isolation and comfort in rhesus monkeys?
Harry Harlow
Monkeys raised is social isolation had what resulted in what changes to normal social behaviors?
A lack of normal sexual functioning and maternal behaviors
Who showed the heritability of behavior through rats ability to do mazes?
R.C. Tyron
Who showed the interaction of environment and heritability with rat’s ability to do mazes?
RM Cooper and John Zubek
How was it shown that environment mattered when it came to the heritably “maze bright” and “maze dull” rats?
The difference only existed when they were both raised under normal conditions. Under enriched conditions both performed well, under deprived conditions both performed poorly.
What are the three states of human gestation
- The germinal stage
- the embryonic stage
- the fetal stage
Describe the germinal stage of gestation
- Zygote moves moves into and implants onto the uterus
- Lasts 2 weeks
- Grows into 64 cells
Describe the embryonic state of gestation
Lasts until the 2nd month of gestation and mostly consists of organ formation
Describe the fetal state of gestation
Quantitative growth and the beginnings of movement occur at this time
At what point in gestation does sexual differentiation begin?
At 6 weeks where the presence of H-Y antigen causes testes to form.
Aside from gonads, when does the rest of the reproductive tract form during gestational development?
About 3 months after conception based on the presence or absence of testosterone.
What are the most common neonatal reflexes?
1) The sucking reflex
2) The head turning reflex (stroking the baby’s cheek)
3) Moro reflex (throwing out arms and legs when frightened)
4) Babinski reflex
5) Palmar reflex (grabbing things)
Most of a neonatal baby’s behaviors are triggered by what?
Reflexes
What defines the adolescent developmental stage?
When the pituitary and adrenal glands start secreting hormones that result in the emergence of a growth spurt and secondary sex characteristics.
What types of studies are used to evaluate the influence of nature versus nuture?
Twin studies
Based on the results of twin studies does people’s behavior seem to be a result of nature or nuture?
Both
Who is perhaps the most central psychologist in the field of children’s developmental psychology?
Jean Piaget
What was Jean’s Piaget’s main premise about how the mind changes over time?
there is an interaction between internal maturation and external experience. ADAPTATION occurs as a result of assimilation and accomodation.
Define the assimilation of new information
fitting new information into existing ideas
Define the accommodation of new information
the modification of cognitive schemata to incorporate new information
What were the four cognitive developmental stages defined by Piaget?
1) Sensorimotor
2) Preoperational
3) Concrete Operational
4) Formal Operational
What are the substages of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage?
1) reflexive behaviors cued by sensations
2) circular reactions
3) object permanence
3) representation
What are circular reactions?
repeated behavior intended to manipulate the environment
What is the general time frame of the sensorimotor stage?
0-2 years of age
Define representation as it concerns developmental psychology
visualizing or putting words to objects
What is the general time frame for the preoperational stage?
2-7 years of age
What are the characteristics of the preoperational stage?
1) Egocentric understanding
2) Rapidly acquiring words as symbols for things
3) Inability to perform mental operations such as causality or the true understanding of quantity
What is the general time frame for the concrete operational stage?
7-12 years of age
What are the characteristics of the concrete operational stage?
Understanding concrete relationships such as quantity and simple math, development of the idea of conservation
Define conservation as it relates to developmental psychology
the ability to conceive that things can change in shape without changing in volume.
What is the general time frame for the formal operational stage?
12+ years of age
What are the characteristics of the formal operational stage?
Understanding of abstract relationships such as logic, ratios, and values
Who showed that piaget likely underestimated preschoolers ability to understand quantity?
Rochel Gelman
What are the three moral developmental stages hypothesized by Piaget?
1) imitates rule following behavior and does not question acceptance of rules (4-7)
2) understands rules and follows them (7-11 years)
3) applies abstract thinking to rules; can change rules if all parties agree (12+ years)
What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?
The physiologic responses to situations precede the emotions that we feel as a result of those responses.
What theory of emotion postulates that physical reactions precede emotions?
The James-Lange Theory of emotion
What theory of emotions postulates that physical reactions and emotions occur simultaneously?
The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion is also known as the
Emergency Theory
The emergency theory is also known as the
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
What theory of emotions postulates that cognition provides emotional context to the physiologic reactions we are experiencing?
The cognitive theory of emotion
Who proposed the cognitive theory of emotion
Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer
What did “fixation” mean in reference to Freud’s theories?
Getting stuck in a developmental stage of personality and not being able to move on from that stage as a result of parental over-indulgence.
What did “regression” mean in reference to Freud’s theories?
Return to an earlier developmental personality stage as a result of life stressors.
Freud saw the fundamental driving force behind human development as…
sexual / sexual gratification / biological needs
Each stage of Freud’s proposal for personality development was focused around a particular…
erogenous zone
What were Freud’s stages of personality development?
1) Oral (0-1)
2) Anal (1-3)
3) Phallic (3-6)
4) Latency (6-12)
5) Genital (12+)
What is associated with fixation in the oral stage according to Freud?
Oral aggression (verbal abuse) or passivity (smoking, overeating)
According to Freud what resulted in the successful resolution of the oral stage?
Weaning
According to Freud what behaviors are associated with development during the oral stage?
Sucking, chewing, eating, biting, vocalizing
According to Freud, what behaviors are associated with development during the anal stage?
Bladder and bowel control
According to Freud, what resulted in the successful resolution of the anal stage?
Toilet Training
According to Freud, what was associated with fixation in the anal stage?
Anal retention (being overly neat and tidy) or anal explusion (being disorganized)
According to Freud, what behaviors are associated with development during the phallic stage?
Genitals, oedipus or electra complex
According to Freud, what resulted in the successful resolution of the anal stage?
Gender identification
According to Freud, what was associated with fixation in the phallic stage?
Difficulty with intimate relationships
According to Freud what behaviors are associated with development during the latency stage?
None (sexual feelings are dormant during this period)
According to Freud what behaviors result in the successful resolution of the latency stage?
Social interaction
According to Freud what was associated with fixation in the latency stage?
Arrested development
According to Freud, what behaviors are associated with development during the genital phase?
Interest in other people’s genitals (reproduction and pleasure)
According to Freud, what results in successful resolution of the genital phase
Intimate relationships
According to Freud, what is associated with fixation in the genital stage?
Fixation in prior stage could result in sexual and intimacy issues.
What is the Heinz dilemma
If a man’s wife is dying should the man steal the medication or let his wife die?
Who created the best known theory of moral development?
Lawrence Kohlberg
What are the three stages of Kohlberg’s moral development?
1) preconventional/premoral
2) conventional/morality of conformity
3) postconventional/morality of self-accepted principles
What is the understanding of morals during the preconventional/premoral stage?
Avoid punishment and should gain rewards (if I steal I’ll get in trouble)
What is the understanding of morals at the conventiona/morality of conformity stage
should gain approval, should follow the law and authority (stealing is against the law)
what is the understanding or morals during the postconventional/morality of self-accepted principles stage?
focus on rights and social welfare over black and white of laws, make decisions based on abstract ethical principles (it is unjust that money is a obstacle to life, it is ethical that I save my wife)
Who proposed that women’s morality is more focused on compassion and that Kohlberg’s morality was male biased?
Carol Gilligan
What is Erik Erikson known for?
A development scheme that 1) involves the whole lifespan and 2) looks at each stage as having a psychosocial conflict to resolve
What are the stages of Erik Erikson’s Life Span Development?
Infancy = Trust vs. Mistrust Early Childhood = Autonomy vs. Shame Preschool = Initiative vs. Guilt School Age = Industry vs. Inferiority Adolescence = Identity vs. Role Confusion Young Adulthood = Intimacy vs. Isolation Middle Age = Generatively vs. Stagnation Later Life = Integrity vs. Despair
In Erik Erikson’s life span model what does trust/mistrust signify?
Trust = infant’s needs are met, mistrust = infant’s needs are not met
In Erik Erikson’s life span model what does autonomy vs. shame signify?
Autonomy: Children learn self-control
Shame: Children remain dependent
In Erik Erikson’s life span model what does initiative vs. guilt signify?
Initiative: Children achieve purpose
Guilt: Children are thwarted in efforts
In Erik Erikson’s life span model what does industry vs. inferiority signify?
Industry: Children gain competence
Inferiority: Children feel incompetent
In Erik Erikson’s life span model what does identity vs. role confusion signify?
Identity: Adolescents learn sense of self
Role Confusion: Absolescents lack own identity
In Erik Erikson’s life span model what does intimacy vs. isolation signify?
Intimacy: develop mature relationships
Isolation: Unable to create social ties
In Erik Erikson’s life span model what does generativity vs. stagnation signify?
Generativity: Contributing to society/others
Stagnation: Feel life is meaningless
In Erik Erikson’s life span model what does integrity vs. despair signify?
Integrity: develop wisdom, Despair: feel unaccomplished
Who was the founder of attachment theory?
John Bowlby
What did Bowlby propose about attachment?
That humans are wired to attach to a primary caregiver and engage in behaviors that produce nurturing feelings, early separations can result in psychopathology.
Who invented the “strange situation” attachment study?
Mary Ainsworth
Who proposed the different attachment styles?
Mary Ainsworth
What were the four attachment styles that Mary Ainsworth discovered?
1) Secure
2) Avoidant
3) Ambivalent/resistant
4) Disorganized
How do ambivalent/resistant infants react when during the strange situation test?
highly distressed during stranger and maternal separation, refuse to interact when mothers return.
How do securely attached infants react during the strange situation test?
Happy and explorative, comforted by mothers when a stranger approached, distressed when separated from them, and interacted with them when they returned.
How do avoidant attached infants react during the strange situation test?
Little responsiveness during all stages.
What is theorized about meeting the needs of infants with different attachment styles
1) Secure - needs met
2) Avoidant - unresponsive to needs
3) Ambivalent/resistant - needs erratically met
4) Disorganized - neglect or abuse from caregiver
How do disorganized attached infants react during the strange situation test?
Their response when toddler does not engage in coherent or consistent behavior during the reunion (may freeze or run away).
Who studied the relationship between personality and parenting style?
Diana Baurind
What are the characteristics of authoritarian parents
demanding, unaffectionate, strict
What are the personality characteristics of children with authoritarian parents?
withdrawn and unhappy
What are the characteristics of permissive parents?
affectionate, not strict
What are the personality characteristics of children with permissive parents?
happy, but lacking in self control and self reliance
What are the characteristics of authoritative parents?
Affectionate, firm but fair
What are the personality characteristics of children with authoritative parents?
self-reliant, self-confident, assertive, friendly, happy, high-functioning.
Who did a study to show that emotions could be conditioned in people?
John B. Watson
How did Watson show emotions could be conditioned in people?
By scaring a little boy with a loud noise every time a white rat was near, resulting in fear in the boy even in the absence of the noise.
The experiment with the little boy being scared of the rat was called the…
“Little albert” experiment
The behaviorism approach to development assumes what?
1) that people are a tabula rasa or blank slate molded by the environment and parents
2) Human beings can be conditioned to adopt all sorts of traits, dispositions, cognitions, and over behaviors through conditioning.
Who introduced maturational developmental theory?
Arnold Gesell
Which developmental model that integrates both nature and nuture is widely used today?
Maturational developmental theory
Maturational developmental theory posits that there are what 4 aspects of development?
1) motor, 2) cognitive (adaptive), 3) language, 4) personal/social behavior
Maturational developmental theory posits that what may impact the rate of development in different individuals?
genetics, temperament, learning style, physical growth, parental and family influences, cultural norms and more.
Around when does gender identity develop?
Before the age of four
What may influence gender identity?
genetics, prenatal and postnatal hormones, and socialization processes.
What are gender roles?
Conventional often stereotyped attitudes about how to behave base don biological sex.
When is the sex-typed behaviors highest?
During young adulthood.
