Skill Aquisition Flashcards
1
Q
Define the term skill?
A
The learned ability to bring about pre-determined results with maximum certainty and with minimum outlay of time and energy
2
Q
What are the 7 elements which classify something as a skill?
A
Learned
Consistent
Fluent
Efficient (minimal energy)
Follows technical model
Aesthetically pleasing
Goal/achievement directed
3
Q
Name all 6 continuum?
A
Muscular Involvement
Pacing
Continuity
Environmental
Organisational
Difficulty
4
Q
What are the two extremes of the muscular involvement continuum?
A
Gross
Fine
5
Q
Describe what is meant by the term Gross skill?
A
Involve large muscle movements
Associated with power and strength
Eg, hammer throwing
6
Q
Give an example of a gross skill?
A
Hammer throwing
7
Q
Describe what is meant by the term Fine skill?
A
Involves intricate movements using small muscle groups
Associated with control and accuracy
Eg, wrist/finger action of a spin bowler in cricket
8
Q
Give an example of a fine skill?
A
wrist/finger action of a spin bowler in cricket
9
Q
What are the two extremes of the environmental continuum?
A
Open
Closed
10
Q
What is meant by the term ‘open’ skill?
A
The display (environment) has an affect
The skills are perceptual and adapted to in a different way each time
Externally paced and unpredictable
Eg, recieving a serve in tennis
11
Q
Give an example of an open skill?
A
Receiving a serve in tennis
12
Q
Describe what is meant by the term ‘closed’ skill?
A
The display has little effect
Skill is habitual, pre-determined and self-paced
Eg. Handstand in gymnastics floor routine
13
Q
Give an example of a closed skill?
A
Handstand in gymnastics floor routine
14
Q
What are the extremes of the continuity continuum?
A
Discrete
Serial
Continuous
15
Q
What is meant by the term ‘discrete’ skill?
A
The skill has a clear beginning and end
(In order for it to be repeated it must start again)
Eg. Penalty in football
16
Q
Give an example of a discrete skill?
A
Penalty in football
17
Q
What is meant by the term ‘serial’ skill?
A
Made up of a few discrete skills which are put together to form a whole action
(Usually have a set order in which they are performed)
Eg. Triple jump
18
Q
Give an example of a serial skill?
A
Triple jump
Lay up
19
Q
What is meant by the term ‘continuous’ skill?
A
Do not have a clear beginning and end
(End of one cycle = beginning of next)
Eg, swimming/running
20
Q
Give an example of a continuous skill?
A
Swimming
Running
Cycling
21
Q
What are the two extremes of the pacing continuum?
A
Self-paced
Externally-paced
22
Q
What is meant by the term ‘self-paced’
A
Timing is controlled by the performer
(Decides speed/rate of action)
Closed skill
Eg. Discus throw
23
Q
Give an example of a self-paced skill?
A
Discus throw
24
Q
What is meant by the term externally-paced?
A
Timing is decided by the environment (performer must react/adapt to environment)
Open skills
Eg, changing direction in sailing
25
Give an example of an externally-paced skill?
Changing direction in sailing
Receiving a pass in football
26
What are the two extremes of the difficulty continuum?
Simple
Complex
27
What is meant by the term ‘simple’ skill.
Very little information needs to be processed
Few decisions to be made/judgement
Small no. Of sub-routines
Eg. Swimming/sprinting
28
Give an example of a simple skill?
Swimming
Sprinting
29
What is meant by the term ‘complex’ skill?
Performer requires up high perception and concentration
Lots of informaron to process and decision to make
Skills have many sub-routines
Eg. Somersault in trampolining/tennis serve
30
Give an example of a complex skill?
Somersault in trampolining
Tennis serve
Free kick in football
31
What are the two extremes of the organisation continuum?
Low
High
32
What is meant by the term low organisation?
The skill is made up of many sub-routines
Can be separated and practiced easily
Eg. Swimming strokes
33
Give an example of a low organisational skill?
Swimming strokes
34
What is meant by the term high organisation?
The skill CAN’T easily be broken up into sub-routines
Taught as a whole skill
Eg, cartwheel/golf swing
35
Give an example of a high organisational skill?
Cartwheel
Golf swing
36
What are the three stages of learning?
Cognitive
Associative
Autonomous
37
What is the cognitive stage of learning involve?
It’s the initial phase of learning
Demonstrations are used to help performer create a mental/visual image
Verbal/visual guidance are the most used
Practice in the form of trial and error
Uses lots of conscious thought
‘Jerky’ inconsistent and full of error
Motor program established and stored in the long-term memory
Guidance should be given to the important cues to focus on
38
What stage of learning utilises basic trial and error methods?
Cognitive
39
What stage of learning uses demos to help performers create a mental image?
Cognitive
40
What stage of learning requires lots of conscious thought?
Cognitive
41
What stage of learning lacks skill fluency and consistency?
Cognitive
42
What does the associatiative stage involve?
Practice phase
Fundamental basics have been mastered
Skill is becoming more consistent
Mistakes are eliminated
Smooth, execution and improve timing
Develop kinaesthetic awareness
Demonstrations mental rehearsal, reinforcement, are important for learning to continue
Can return to cognitive stage to review and refine
43
What is the practice phase of learning?
Associative
44
In which stage of learning have the fundamental basics been mastered
Associative
45
In which stage of learning is kinaesthetic awareness developed
Associative
46
What does the autonomous stage of learning involve?
Expert phase
Automatic control - minimum, conscious thought
Fluent, efficient, habitual, and consistent performance
Skills can be adapted to meet a variety of situations (focus directed on the environment)
Feedback must be detailed and specific
Please can self analyse performance -intrinsic feedback will highlight errors
Without practice regressed to the associative stage
47
In which stage of learning do performers self analyse using intrinsic feedback?
Autonomous
48
Which stage of learning uses minimum conscious thought?
Autonomous
49
In which stage of learning is the skill habitual, consistent and fluent?
Autonomous
50
In which stage of learning can focus be directed on the environment?
Autonomous
51
What are the four types of guidance?
Visual
Verbal
Mechanical
Manual
52
Define what is meant by visual guidance?
Showing a performer, what they are required to do with pictures, demonstrations, videos and charts
53
What are the advantages of visual guidance?
Helps performer create a mental image
Gives better understanding of skill (shows difficult part)
Effective if done by role model
Highlight top class technique /tactics/stratergies
Can be used for video analysis
54
What are the disadvantages visual guidance?
If unclear or poor demonstration is shown poor technique may be copied and learnt
Maybe too quick for performers to process
Static images don’t show how movement is produced
55
Define what is meant by verbal guidance?
Performer is told what they are required to do (for successful skill completion)
56
What are the advantages of verbal guidance?
Can you be very basic (three pieces of information) and involve positive feedback
Used introduced/explain tactics
Questioning technique and discussing outcomes of a skill can improve performance
Builds or knowledge gained by visual guidance
Helps understanding, strategies, tactics and skills
Can be motivational and give confidence
Can we can concurrent
57
What are the disadvantages of verbal guidance?
Performers must understand language been used
Overload/overwhelmed/confusion can occur if to much is given
If inaccurate can lead to incrorrect performance
58
Define the term manual guidance.
Coach, physically moves player into position/through skill
59
What are the advantages of manual guidance?
Develops confidence! Ensure safety and develops kinaesthesis
Can give a clear understanding of how to perform a skill
Can be used to isolate a particular part of the skills to be improved
60
What are the disadvantages of manual guidance?
Can become overly reliant on support if not phased out
Can lead to force sense of kinaesthesis or intrinsic feedback could be incorrect
61
Define what is meant by mechanical guidance
Use of AIDS/equipment to help skills learning
62
What are the advantages of mechanical guidance?
Reduces fear in dangerous situations
Helps learn, basic body positions and increase confidence/motivation
Helped isolate/practice subroutines of a skill
To practice more complex skills, e.g. increase speed/spin of bowling machine )
63
What are the disadvantages of mechanical guidance?
Performer can be over reliant on support
Can lead to a false sense of kinaesthesis
Can restrict performer so not able to fully perform skill (develop correct intrinsic feedback)
64
What are the four types of practice?
Whole practice
Progressive part
Part learning
Whole -part-whole
65
What is whole practice?
The skill is learned in its complete form without being broken down into subroutines (eg. Golf swing)
66
What are the advantages of whole practice?
Develops in awareness of the entire movement
Understand relationship between different subroutines
Experience timing need to execute skills successfully
Develops intrinsic feedback/kinaesthesis
Can be a quick method
67
What are the disadvantages of whole practice?
Difficult to use with complex skills
May be difficult for cognitive performers to execute initially
Not ideal for dangerous situations
May lose confidence/motivation if can’t complete skill
68
What is part learning?
The performer completes subroutines of the overall movement in isolation before attempting the overall skill (eg leg action of breast stroke)
69
What are the advantages of part learning?
Complex skills can be broken down in learnt in stages reducing information to be processed and possibility of overload
Specific aspects of a technique may be mortified
It allows performer to develop confidence when practising
Reduces element of risk in dangerous situations (eg vault)
It allows performer periods of recovery during physically demanding skills
Maintains motivation -success can be achieved quickly
70
What are the disadvantages of part learning?
Hinders the development of continuity and timing of the complete skill
Reduces overall kinaesthetic awareness
Transfer from part to whole may not be effective
Hi organisational skills are difficult to break down
Time-consuming
71
What is progressive part practice?
Involve the performer, attempting skills in stages and linking phases together in order (a.k.a chaining)
Eg. Triple Jump
72
What are the advantages of progressive part?
Complex skills can be broken down, reduce info load
Cognitive performance achieve a quick success
Performers with limited attention span remain focused
Develops in understanding of relationship between subroutines
Minimises risk
Transfer to whole skill made easier
73
What are the disadvantages of progressive part?
It is time consuming
Performance may become too focused on a particular subroutine
Not suitable for high organisation skills
74
What is whole part whole practice?
The performer attempt the whole movement after observing a demonstration, and then develop specific subroutines before completing whole school again (eg tennis serve)
75
What are the advantages of whole part whole?
Initially overall feel for movement is developed
Success is continuous by developing weaker subroutines
Kinaesthetic feeling has developed
Quicker than part as develop weaker sub-routine
76
What are the disadvantages of whole part whole?
Transfer from the park to whole, maybe difficult
Some skills are difficult to complete (don’t breakdown)
Overall, timing affected
Not suitable for highly organised/dangerous skills
77
Name, the four methods of practice?
Massed
Fixed
Distributed
Variable
78
What is massed practice?
Learners practice a skill continuously without any breaks or rest interviews
Practice is usually long stimulates elements of fatigue
79
What are the advantages of massed practice?
Helps make skill habitual
Good for experienced highly motivated performers
Good for discrete skills
Quick /saves time, don’t have to re-introduce skill after brakes
80
What are the disadvantages of massed practice?
Can lead to Borden/fatigue
Beginners affected by lack of concentration
Cause demotivation/fatigue leading to poor performance
Doesn’t allow for extrinsic feedback
81
What is distributed practice?
Practice sessions have rest intervals which allow for physical and mental recovery
82
What are the advantages of distributed practice?
Good for beginners with low levels of fitness /motivation
Good for continuous skill
Rest intervals, allow extrinsic feedback and mental rehearsal
Helps maintain motivation
Good for dangerous/complex skills
83
What are the disadvantages of distributed practice?
Time-consuming/slower than massed practice
Athletes may feel sessions are repetitive, causing declined in motivation
84
What is fixed practice?
The specific movement pattern is practised repeatedly in the same stable environment
85
What are the advantages of fixed practice?
Allows movement patterns to become habitual
Suitable for closed skills
Helps to eradicate errors and weaknesses in technique
86
What are the disadvantages of fixed practice?
Not suitable for open skills
Requires high levels of motivation
If feedback isn’t provided the athlete could be practising an incorrect skill
87
What is variable practice?
Skills practised in many environments
The practice conditions must be realistic as possible
Techniques are adapted to suit the environment
88
What is advantages of variable practice?
Suitable for rehearsing open skills
Develop schema practising in a range of environments
Develops, learners, perceptual and decision making skills
89
What are the disadvantages of variable practice?
Learning must have established skill motor program in fixed environment
Hard to stimulate game situation
90
What are the five different types of transfer?
Positive
Negative
Proactive
Retroactive
Bilateral
91
What is positive transfer?
Where one skill helps learning and performance of another
92
What is negative transfer
Where one skill hinders the learning and performance of another
93
What is proactive transfer?
One previously learned skill influences a skills that is currently being learned
94
What is retroactive transfer?
A current newly learned skill influences a previously learned skill
95
What is bilateral transfer?
Transfer from limb to another
96
Give an example of positive transfer?
Throwing help your racket arm action in tennis serve
97
Give an example of negative transfer
Badminton player takes up loose wrist for tennis negatively affecting firm wrist needed
98
Give an example of proactive transfer
Throwing action learnt as a child proactively transfers to overarm volleyball serve as an adult
99
Give an example of retroactive transfer
Tennis serve just learned, has influence on already learnt over arm cricket throw
100
Give me example of bilateral transfer
Football player, transfers volley from left foot to right foot
101
How are the effects of positive transfer optimised?
Simplify the task during initial learning and transfer later into real situation
The closer the practice is to the replication of game situation the greater the chance of transfer
The environmental conditions need to be similar to real situation
Clear and concise demonstrations used
Learner must be made aware of transferable elements of a previously learned skill
Learning situation needs to allow for positive transfer
Only successful if previous skill is well learnt
Positive reinforcement ensure positive transfer
102
How do you limit effect of negative transfer
Don’t teach conflicting skills at the same time
Part practice by introducing subroutine slowly
Insure practices are realistic to competition situation
Insure the performer know the difference between two skills
Make sure first skill is well learnt
103
What are the six types of feedback?
Positive
negative
Extrinsic
Intrinsic
Knowledge of performance
Knowledge of results
104
What is positive feedback?
Received when the movement/behaviour/action is correct
105
What are the disadvantages of positive feedback?
If undeserved can lead to inappropriate S - R bonds and deterioration in performance
Some perform may not respond to praise and ignore it
106
What are the advantages of positive feedback?
Helps motivate learners and improve confidence
Increases recurrence of action
107
What is negative feedback
Received from the movement is incorrect and used to correct movement for success next time
108
What are the advantages of negative feedback
Helps correct technique/thoughts which may have developed
Allows performer to be clear on which aspects needs refinement
It’s autonomous learners to perfect skills
Aid motivation
109
What are the disadvantages of negative feedback
Maybe the demotivating and discouraging
110
What is extrinsic feedback?
Feedback from external sources, such as a coach, or teammate
111
What is the advantages of extrinsic feedback?
Provides an understanding of how to improve
Can motivate learners to persevere
If coaching points are accurate can lead to improvement
112
What are the disadvantages of extrinsic feedback?
If unreliable motivation can drop
Can become dependent on it
Doesn’t encourage kinaesthetic awareness
113
What is intrinsic feedback?
Sensory feedback from proprioreceptors about the feel of the movement (kinaesthesis)
114
What are the advantages of intrinsic feedback?
Works for autonomous learners, who understand what they must alter
Helps improve fluency and timing
Strengthens S R bond
Performer doesn’t have to rely on anyone
Movement corrected immediately
115
Disadvantages of intrinsic feedback
Cognitive learning may not be able to interpret information correctly
116
What is knowledge of performance?
Feedback on the quality of movement
117
Advantages of knowledge of performance
Can come from internal and external sources
Can detect errors/fault
Can motivate performers shows what a good performance feels like
118
Disadvantages of knowledge of performance
Only autonomous performers can understand it
119
What is knowledge of results?
Extrinsic feedback about the outcome of the results
120
Advantages of knowledge of results?
Allows performer to see the outcome of their action
Helps develop knowledge of performance needed for learning
Can motivate performers if it is a positive result
121
Disadvantage of knowledge of results
Didn’t give understanding as to why skills incorrect
122
How is feedback effective??
Correspond to skill level of the former
Limited amount of information given
Do it immediately
Relate to individual
Try to facilitate internal feedback
123
What are the three theories of learning?
Operant conditioning
Cognitive theory of learning
Bandura observational learning
124
What does operant conditioning involves?
Skinners theory is associationalist
Performers, learn to trial and error
Stimuli response can shape and modifiy our behaviour
Repetition strengthens the SRR bond - helps skill become habitual
Positive reinforcement helps strengthen SR a bond
125
What is positive reinforcement?
Approval is shown after a successful response
126
What is negative reinforcement
Removing a negative stimulus once desired behaviour has been peformed
127
What is punishment?
Aims to prevent an undesirable SR bond from forming
Eg. Yellow card in football
128
What is the cognitive theory of learning?
Gestalts theory
The whole skill is presented to the learner
This skill is learnt via a problem solving and performers are dependent on perception,understanding, judgment
Involves cognitive thought processes
Intervening variables - mental processes, occur between stimulus and response
Process of insight, learning because performers, use intelligence, memory and current knowledge to formulate response
129
What is Bandura observational learning?
Copying behaviour of others by observing a technically correct demonstration, which is repeated by an attractive role model
Attention - pay attention to important aspects of demonstration point out by coach
Retention - skill is repeated many times by model in demo and practised by performer immediately after
Motor reproduction - Thorndike Effect of readiness (physical and mental capacity)
Motivation- Performance of demonstration is matched (necessary for stages 1-3)
130
What are Bandura is four stages of observational learning?
Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation
131
What are Thorndike’s three laws?
Law of effect
Law of readiness
Law of exercise
132
What is the law of effect?
Positive reinforcement increases chances of behaviour reoccurring by strengthening SR bond
133
What is law of readiness
For learning to be effective, the performer has to be in the right frame of mind, psychologically plus being physically prepared and capable of completing the task
134
What is the law of exercise?
In order to strengthen the SR bond regular practice should take place on favourable conditions
135
What are the two memory models?
- Atkinson and Shriffen’s multi-store memory model
- Craik and Lockhart’s Levels of processing
136
What are the three memory stores in Atkinson and Shriffens multi-store model?
Short Term Sensory Store (STSS)
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
137
What is the STSS?
Short-term sensory store
138
What is the capacity of the STSS?
Large capacity with a separate store for each sense
- All stimuli enter through senses from the display
139
What is the duration of the STSS?
0.25 - 1 second (short period of time)
140
What happens at the STSS?
- It’s the perceptual mechanism which completes - SELECTIVE ATTENTION
- Irrelevant information is quickly lost from our stores
- Relevant information is filtered to our short term memory
141
What is selective attention?
The process of filtering relevant information through it the short term memory and filtering out unimportant information
142
What is the capacity of the short term memory?
Can store 5 - 9 pieces of information
143
What is the duration of the short term memory?
Up to 30 seconds
144
What happens at the short term memory?
COMPARISON ASPECT OF PERCEPTION
- Incoming information is compared to previously learnt information
- Important information can be passed to the LTM through practice + rehearsal encoding
145
What is the capacity of the Long Term memory?
Unlimited capacity which lasts for a long period of time/permenantly
146
What is the duration of the Long Term memory?
Long period of time/unlimited
147
What happens at the Long Term memory?
- Holds information that is well-learned and practiced
- Motor Programmes are held here
- Recognition part of the perceptual process
- Info is encoded to store in LTM and decoded to send back to STM for action
148
Advantages/effectiveness of the Multi-Store memory model?
- Gives us an explanation of why some people with brain damage may have dysfunctional memory
- It simplifies the memory process to help us understand it
149
Disadvantages/ineffectiveness of the Multi-Store memory model?
- The interaction between the short term memory and long term memory is far more complicated so this model doesn’t explain this interaction well.
150
What does Craik and Lockhart’s level of processing model examine?
Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing model examines how memory works and considers what we do with information and how we process it, as opposed to how we store it.
151
Information is more likely to be remembered if :
It has meaning/has personal value or relevance/interesting and exciting
How deeply we consider information determines how long memory lasts
152
What creates a longer memory trace?
If we want information to be processed deeply and therefore remembered, it must be considered, understood and have meaning
153
What are the two elements of shallow processing?
Structural
Phonetic
154
What element forms deep processing?
Semantic
155
What is structural processing ?
Paying attention to what the information looks like (encoding only physical qualities of something)
156
What is phonetic processing?
Encoding and processing sounds / acoustics
157
What is semantic processing?
this considers the actual meaning of the information and involves deep processing
158
Advantages/effectiveness of Craik and Lockhart’s level of processing?
- Explains that the longer we consider and analyse information, the more we remember it.
- Explains that if we understand information well, we are likely to remember it.
- Coaches who have a good understanding of their sport and explain skills and strategies to performers will remember the coaching points clearly.
159
Disadvantages/uneffectiveness of Craik and Lockhart’s level of processing
- Doesn’t take into account individual differences. Some people can remember things really well despite not giving it a lot of attention.
- The longer the time it takes for us to process the information doesn’t always lead to a deeper processing so we don’t always remember this information.
