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honors bio > Sem. 2 Study Guide > Flashcards

Sem. 2 Study Guide Flashcards

1
Q

Why do all organisms need food?

A

Organisms get the energy they need from food.

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2
Q

Identify some examples of food molecules cells use for energy.

A

Fats, proteins, & carbohydrates.

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3
Q

Explain why cellular respiration is a gradual/controlled process.

A

Cells gradually break down food and capture bits of chemical energy of key steps enabling cells to use energy stored in the bonds of food, like glucose, to produce compounds like ATP that will power cellular activity.

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4
Q

What does cellular respiration require (reactants) and what is the result (product)?

A

Cellular respiration requires O2 (oxygen) and C6H1206 (glucose). Cellular respiration produces 602 (carbon dioxide) and 6H20 (water) which makes energy.

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5
Q

When a cell’s demand for energy increases, what else is needed

A

The need for oxygen increases.

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6
Q

How does the aerobic process impact cellular respiration?

A

During aerobic cellular respiration, glucose reacts with oxygen, forming ATP that can be used by the cell. Carbon dioxide and water are created as byproducts.

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7
Q

Are there any stages that are anaerobic?

A

Glycolysis is anaerobic. The Krebs Cycle and The Electron Transport Chain are aerobic.

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8
Q

Describe how photosynthesis complements cellular respiration.

A

Cellular Respiration withdraws energy and deposits C02 (carbon dioxide). Plants, animals, fungi, humans, protist, and most bacteria use this pathway to release energy. Photosynthesis withdraws C02 (carbon dioxide) and deposits energy. Plants algae, and some bacteria use this pathway to capture energy.

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9
Q

What are the 3 products of glycolysis?

A

2 ATP, NADH, and 2 pyruvate molecules.

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10
Q

What is the Krebs Cycle also referred to as?

A

The Citric Acid Cycle.

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11
Q

Explain what occurs to the pyruvic acid during the Krebs Cycle.

A

2 molecules of pyruvic acid produced enter the matrix of the mitochondrial to turn into/is broken down into C02 and NADH and FADH2 & produce ATP. *NADH & FADH have high energy electrons.

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12
Q

Detail what takes place to the highly-energized electrons once they enter the Electron Transport Chain.

A

They pass down the electron transport chain, their energy is used to transport hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water.

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13
Q

How do H+ ions impact ATP synthesis? What is its significance?

A

As H+ ions start superscript, plus, end superscript ions flow down their gradient and back into the matrix, they pass through an enzyme called ATP synthase, which harnesses the flow of protons to synthesize ATP.

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14
Q

What is the result of cellular respiration for one molecule of glucose?

A

36 ATP

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15
Q

Are glucose molecules the only source of chemical energy?

A

No, glucose is not the only energy source for cells. There are some molecules other than glucose that are involved in energy production. These include: Lactic acid.

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16
Q

Explain what happens to NAD+ when oxygen is not available in glycolysis.

A

If 02 is not available, the electron transport chain doesn’t run and the cell cannot produce ATP because NADH is not produced, so high energy electons cannot be deposited to produce ATP.

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17
Q

Contrast between alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation.

A

The byproduct of Alcoholic Fermentation is
Alcohol, CO2, and NAD+. The byproduct of Lactic Acid Fermentation is lactic acid and NAD+. Alcoholic Fermentation is utilized by yeast and other organisms. Lactic Acid Fermentation is utilized by bacteria and humans. Alcoholic Fermentation is used to produce alcohol & CO2. Lactic Acid Fermentation that is utilized by bacteria is used to produce cheese, yogurt, and sour cream. Lactic Acid Fermentation that is utilized by humans is used to produce the rapid burst of muscle movement.

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18
Q

Elaborate on Glycolysis.

A

Takes place in the cytoplasm. Gluco is captured and ATP is produced. 2 ATP required start the process. 2 ATP are produced. Glycolysis removes 4 electrons & passes them to NAD+ forming NADH which is high energy electrons. A the confusion of glycolysis, the glucose (the 6 carbon compound) is broke and rearranged to fo 2 molecules of pyruvic acid (C3HM4O3).

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19
Q

Elaborate on the Karen’s Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle).

A

Takes place in the Matrix (crystae) Pyruvic acid is used to generate more ATP. 2 molecules of pyruvic acid produced enter the matrix o the mitochondrial to turn into/is broken down into CO2 and NADH and FADH2 & produce ATP. The Krebs Cycle is also known as the Citric Acid Cycle. Acetyl coenzyme A is cycling in Krebs.

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20
Q

Elaborate on the Electron Transport Chain.

A

Takes place in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. Requires more reactants from glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle to produce the bulk of energy. Highly charged electrons will transport hydrogen ions (H+) across the inner membrane of the mitochondrion making the intermembrane positively charged.

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21
Q

What is NAD+?

A

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide, it is important coenzyme for redox reactions.

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22
Q

What is adenosine triphosphate?

A

One of the most important compounds that cells use to store and release energy.

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23
Q

What is a heterotroph?

A

Most of them acquire energy from other organisms. They are consumer organisms that rely on other organisms for energy and nutrients.

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24
Q

What is an autotroph?

A

They use chemical energy (solar) to produce “food” by assembling inorganic compounds into complex organic molecules. They are primary producers, so they store energy for other organisms.

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25
What are NADH?
High energy electrons.
26
What is ATP synthase?
The ATP synthase is a mitochondrial enzyme localized in the inner membrane, where it catalyzes the synthesis of ATP from ADP and phosphate, driven by a flux of protons across a gradient generated by electron transfer from the proton chemically positive to the negative side.
27
What factors/conditions impact an organism's environment?
Biotic Factors - Biological influences on organisms. Example: Tadpole eats algae, bullfrog eats insects, horn eats bullfrogs —> competition between species for frog. Abiotic Factors - Physical components of an ecosystem. Example: Water availability will aect the bullfrog.
28
What do all organisms rely upon? In what source(s) can this be found? What is the ultimate source?
All organisms rely on energy. Sunlight is the main source of energy.
29
Dierentiate between autotrophs and heterotrophs.
Autotrophs use chemical energy (solar) to produce “food” by assembling inorganic compounds into complex organic molecules. They are primary producers because they store energy for other organisms. Most Heterotrophs acquire energy from other organisms. They are consumers that rely on other organisms for energy and nutrients.
30
Explain how energy flows through an ecosystem.
Energy in an ecosystem always flows from primary producers to various consumers.
31
State and understand the interaction between dierent organisms within a food chain.
A food chain is a series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating based on being eaten.
32
What is a Carnivore?
Kill and eat other animals; catching and killing prey requires lots of energy, but meat has lots of nutrients and energy and is easy to digest.
33
What is an herbivore?
Get energy from eating plant leaves, roots, seeds, or fruits. Common herbivores include cows, caterpillars, and deer.
34
What is a Decomposer?
(Like bacteria and fungi) They “feed” by chemically breaking down organic matter. They decay caused by these consumers is a part of the process that produced detritus—small pieces of dead and decaying plant and animal remains.
35
What is an Omnivore?
Animals whose diets naturally include a variety of dierent foods including both plants and animals.
36
What is a Scavenger?
Animals that consume the carcasses of other animals that have been killed by predators or have died of other causes.
37
What is a Detritivore?
Feed on detritus particles, chewing or grinding then into even smaller pieces. Examples are miles, snails, shrimp, and crabs. They commonly digest decomposers that live on, and in, detritus particles.
38
Describe the role decomposers play within an ecosystem.
They convert dead material to “detritus,” which is going to be eaten by detritivores recycling nutrients in the food web. They are consumers.
39
Explain the concept of interdependence and how dierent species impact each other.
Interdependence is the dependence two or more organisms have on each other.
40
How does Matter Flow Through An Ecosystem?
Through a series of food chains, food webs, and nutrients cycles.
41
How does Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem?
in an ecosystem always flows from primary producers to various consumers.
42
What are the 3 chemical substances needed to sustain life?
Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
43
What is Climate?
The average conditions of an area over a long period of time.
44
What is weather?
The current conditions of an area.
45
What are the 3 factors that impact climate?
Solar energy trapped in the biosphere, latitude - received direct energy, transport of head by the wind and ocean currents.
46
How does the greenhouse effect impact the earth and its overall impact on climate.
Climate is affected by the proximity towards the equator. The solar energy is spread out over the poles, and more focused over the equator.
47
Explain why sunlight is, or is not, equally distributed across the earth's atmosphere.
These gases function like glass in. a greenhouse, allowing visible light to enter but trapping heat. This phenomenon is called the greenhouse eect. If greenhouse gas concentrations rise, they trap more heat, so Earth warms. if their concentrations fall, more heat escapes, and Earth cools.
48
What is a niche?
The range of physical and biological conditions in which a species lives and the way the species obtains what it needs to survive and reproduce.
49
What is a habitat?
Just where an organism lives. An organism’s habitat is determined by its tolerance for environmental conditions.
50
What is the result of competition between different species?
There’s a winner and a loser. The less competitive species doesn’t survive because no 2 species can occupy exactly the same niche in exactly the same habitat at exactly the same time.
51
How can predation dramatically alter a community?
It can aect the size of pre y in populations in a community and determine the places they live and feed.
52
What is Mutualism?
A relationship in which both species benefit.
53
What is Parasitism?
A relationship in which one organism lives inside or on another organism and harms it.
54
What is Commensalism?
A relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed.
55
What is Ecological Succession?
A series of more-or-less predicable changes that occur in a community over time. Ecosystems change over time, explicitly after disturbances, as some species die out and new species move in.
56
What is Primary Succession?
It occurs when no remnants of a community remains. Example: Volcanic explosion - Can create new land or sterilize existing areas over the years.
57
What is Secondary Succession?
Occurs when the entire community is not destroyed. This proceeds faster than primary succession. Examples: Occurs after wildfires, hurricanes, or other natural disturbances; human activity (loggin & farming).
58
What is the ideal result of succession?
The community gets regenerated.
59
How many biomes did we learn about in this unit?
10 biomes.
60
Which geography features do not fit into biomes?
Mountain ranges and polar caps.
61
What abiotic factors impact aquatic communities?
Water Depth, Temperature, Current Flow, Amount of Dissolved Nutrients.
62
Identify where photosynthesis and chemosynthesis take place in aquatic communities.
Photosynthesis occurs in the photic portion of the ocean. Phytoplankton grows in the water.
63
What is the Photic (Aquatic) Zone?
It’s right above the continental shelf.
64
What is the Aphotic (Aquatic) Zone?
It’s just below the continental slope.
65
What is the Benthic (Aquatic) Zone?
It’s in the depths of water.
66
Detail the abiotic factors that impact aquatic ecosystems.
Currents (They can carry water that is warmer or cooler than would be typical for any given latitude, depth, or distance from shore) and depth. The type of aquatic life that exist depends also on the availability of...Nutrient availability - oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, potassium, and phosphorus.
67
What is the biosphere?
It consists of all life on Earth, everywh where life exists. This extends to above earth’s surface to 8 kilometers and below earth’s surface 11 kilometers.
68
What is ecology?
the scientific study of interactions amo organisms and between organisms and their physical environment.
69
What is environment?
Conditions, or factors, surrounding an organism.
70
What is the competitive exclusion principle?
When dieren species attempt to use different resources at the same time there is always a winner & loser. The less competitive species does not survive. No 2 species can occupy exactly the same niche in exactly the same habitat at exactly the same time Rather than compete for resources, some specie will divide them.
71
What is a keystone species?
By altering the population of one species, it could dramatically impact the structure of an entire community.
72
What is symbiosis?
Means “living together.” Any relationship in which two species live closely together.
73
What are scavengers?
Animals that consume the carcasses of other animals that have been killed by predators or have died of other causes.
74
What is succession?
A series of more-or-less predictable changes that occur in a community over time. Ecosystems change over time, especially after disturbances, as some species die out and new species move in.
75
What are biomes?
Climate communities that are described in terms of abiotic and biotic factors.
76
Why is Darwin’s theory of evolution significant to the world in which we live?
Darwin’s work oers vital insight into today’s world by showering how the living world is constantly changing. Also modern phenomena like drug-resistant bacteria and newly emerging diseases such as avian flu.
77
Who was the first to propose that organisms are not fixed? Why was his theory flawed?
Jean Baptiste Lamarack. Organisms don’t have an inborn drive to become more perfect, evolution does not progress in a predetermined direction, and traits acquired during their lifetimes cannot be passed onto ospring.
78
Describe how Thomas Malthus influenced Darwin.
Mathus’s reasoning applied more to other organisms than did to humans. Darwin was convinced that species evolved.
79
What is, according to Darwin, “the struggle for existence”?
If more individuals are produced than can survive, members of a population must compete to obtain food, living space, and other limited necessities of life.
80
Which species always come out on top of the aforementioned struggle.
The species that adapts and have high fitness to survive in their environment.
81
What is “survival of the fittest?”
The dierence in rates of survival and pro production. A species that is going to be better adapted to their environment because they are able to withstand whatever threats there are. A certain species survives and reproduces more often than others do in its environment.
82
What is Darwin’s mechanism for evolution?
Evolution is natural selection. Because resources are limited in nature, organisms with heritable traits that favor survival and reproduction will tend to leave more ospring than their peers, causing the traits to increase in frequency over generations.
83
What does natural selection impact (or act on)?
Natural selection is the process by which organisms with variations most suited to their local environment survive and leave more ospring. It acts only on variations/traits that the parents can pass on to ospring.
84
What could potentially happen to a species if the environment undergoes rapid changes?
There could be too many predators leading to less prey which could potentially end up killing the predators who now have no food. It causes disruption in the whole ecosystem.
85
What impact, according to Darwin, could generations of natural selection have on a species?
Natural selection can lead to speciation, where one species gives rise to a new and distinctly dierent species.
86
What does Darwin’s concept of descent with modification call for
Living organisms are descended with modifications. This changes adaptation through natural selection which spans millions of years.
87
What is Microevolution?
Changes in the frequency of a gene in a gene in a population. These are subtle changes that occur in very short periods of time, and may not be visible to a causal observer.
88
What is Macroevolution?
The Principle of Common Descent: All species—living and extinct—are descended from ancient common ancestors.
89
Briefly elaborate on Intelligent Design.
Is not a faith-based idea, is an evidence-based scientific theory about life’s organs, whatever we are is because of our genes, holds that there are tell-tale creatures of living systems & the universe is best explained by a designing intelligence.
90
Briefly elaborate on Evolution?
(For Modern Darwinists) the appearance of design is illusory, because the purely undirected process of natural selection acting on random mutations is entirely sucient to produce the intricate designed-like structures found in living organisms. Life is based on randomness, nothing was designed, everything just happened.
91
What is the definition of Evolution?
A scientific discovery that Darwin developed. biological evolution that explains how modern organisms evolved over long periods of time through descent from common ancestors. It’s a process of change over time.
92
What are fossils?
The remains or impression of a prehisto organism preserved in petrified form or as a mol or cast in rock.
93
What are acquired characteristics?
Traits altered by an indivisible organism during its life.
94
What is fitness?
How well an organism can reproduce and survive in its environment.
95
What is the Tree of Life?
What all organisms, past and present, are linked together through. To illustrate this claim, Darwin created the first Evolutionary Tree.
96
Who is the father of modern genetics?
Gregor Mendel
97
Elaborate on the background of Gregor Mendel.
He was an Austrian monk, he worked with peas, and the peas became the model and they became the model system.
98
Describe the process of cross pollination.
You take the male part o of a plant and use it to pollinate another plant. A plant that has two dierent parents is produced from these crosses.
99
Are the traits of all alleles visible?
No, some traits are genetic, or can be inside the organism.
100
When are recessive alleles visible?
If the individual has two copies of the allele. Mendel discovered that when he allows the F1 hybrid to self pollinate, the recessive allele appeared.
101
When does segregation take place?
In the Principle of Independent Assortment - Genes for different traits can segregate independently during gamete formation.
102
What does Heterozygous mean?
2 different alleles.
103
What does Homozygous mean?
2 identical alleles
104
What is, and how is a hybrid represented?d
Mendel discovered that when he allows the F1 hybrid to self pollinate, the recessive allele appeared.
105
Identify the impact dierent traits have on alleles.
These complex combinations also influence our risks for developing certain diseases, how we react to medications, and even if we develop allergies to certain things.
106
What are Genotypes?
The genetic makeup of an organism. They’re inherited.
107
What are Phenotypes?
The physical characteristics of an organism. They are largely determined but their genotypes.
108
What does a hybrid cross involve?
In a hybrid cross, the parents carry dierent pair of alleles for each trait.
109
Why are there so many genetic variations?
Mutations, the changes in the sequences of genes in DNA, are one source of genetic variation. Another source is gene flow, or the movement of genes between dierent groups of organisms.
110
What is the Law of Dominace?
Some alleles are dominant and some are recessive. When 2 alleles (or more) of a trait exist.
111
What is the Law of Segregation?
Genes separate from each other when gametes are formed.
112
What is the Law of Independent Assortment?
Alleles for different genes usually segregate independently of each other.
113
Why can multiple alleles result in many dierent phenotypes for a single trait?
They’re a gene with more than two alleles. Example: The rabbit’s phenotype varies as a result of multiple alleles.
114
Is the phenotype always determines by the genotype?
No, the environment that an organism is in can also determine the phenotype of the organism.
115
What is the result of Meiosis 1? What happens to the chromosome sets?
Two haploid cells are the end result of the first meiotic division. The cells are haploid because at each pole, there is just one of each pair of the homologous chromosomes. This separation means that each of the daughter cells that results from meiosis I will have half the number of chromosomes of the original parent cell after interphase.
116
How many daughter cells are there following Meiosis 2?
4
117
What is the role of DNA?
DNA serves as the manual for constructing proteins (as well as cells, tissues, etc).
118
What is a sex chromosome?
The X and the Y chromosomes that determine your sex as a male or female when you’re born. Females have 2 X chromosomes and males have 1X and 1Y chromosome.
119
What is an autosome?
Any chromosomes that aren’t sex chromosomes.
120
What happens in interphase?
growth, DNA replication, cell functi *chrmosomes replication.
121
What happened in prophase 1?
*replicated chromosome pairs with corresponding homologous chromosomes = (tetrad chromatids) => cross over +> create new allele combinations.
122
What happens in metaphase 1?
Paired homologous chromosomes line up across the center of the cell. As the cell moved into anaphase I, the homologous pairs of chromosomes seperate.
123
What happens in anaphase 1?
Spindle fibers pull each homologou chromosomes pair towards opposite ends of the cell.
124
What happens in prophase 2?
The chromosomes—each consisting of two chromatids—become visible. The chromosomes do not pair to form tetras, because the homologous pairs were already separated during meiosis I.
125
What happens in metaphase 2?
Chromosomes line up at the center of each cell.
126
What happens in anaphase 2?
The paired chromatids separate.
127
What happens in telophase 2?
These four daughter cells now contain the haploid number— just two chromosomes each.
128
What is genetics?
The scientific study of heredity. It is the key to understanding what makes each organism unique.
129
What is fertilization?
A process where reproductive cells join during sexual preproduction to produce a new cell.
130
What are traits?
Specific characteristics. Example: Seed color.
131
What is F1?
The ospring of a pair of plants (the P), or parental generation. The F1 is the first filial generation.
132
What are gametes?
sex cells
133
What is a Punnett Square?
Uses probability to help predict the genotype and the phenotype combinations in genetic crosses by using a chart and segregating all possible alleles.
134
What is the principle of incomplete dominance?
When one allele is neither dominant or recessive.
135
What is codominance?
The phenotype of both alleles is expressed in the ospring.
136
What are chromosomes?
Threadlike structures of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.
137
What is a diploid?
“2 sets,” most adult organisms contain complete sets of inherited chromosomes and 2 complete sets of genes.
138
What is a haploid?
“1 set” of chromosomes, and a single se of genes.
139
What is a zygote?
After an egg is fertilized, it becomes a zygote. They zygote undergoes cell division by mitosis and eventually forms a new organism.

honors bio (9 decks)

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