Schizophrenia Flashcards
Mäkinen et al. (2008)
1/3 of schizophrenics suffer from significant negative symptoms.
Milev et al. (2005)
The more negative symptoms, the worse the functional outcome for the patient.
Sarkar et al. (2010)
Physical, rather than social, anhedonia is a more reliable symptom of schizophrenia.
Saha et al. (2005)
0.04% of people have schizophrenia at some point in their lives.
Regier et al. (2013)
Diagnoses of schizophrenia only had a kappa (inter-rater reliability) score of 0.46 (not great).
Copeland (1971)
US clinicians were much more likely to diagnose schizophrenia than British clinicians.
Luhrman et al. (2015)
African and Indian schizophrenics described their voices as playful and helpful whereas US schizophrenics said they were violent and distressing.
Broverman et al. (1970)
US clinicians (in 1970) saw ‘healthy behaviour’ as healthy male behaviour and so women are more at risk of diagnosis.
Ellason and Ross (1995)
People with dissociative identity disorder (DID) have more schizophrenic symptoms than schizophrenics.
Buckley et al. (2009)
50% of schizophrenics also have depression and 47% also have substance abuse.
Read (2004)
Most schizophrenics have enough symptoms to be diagnosed as having another illness.
Swets et al. (2014)
12% of schizophrenics fit the criteria for OCD and 25% displayed obsessive-compulsive symptoms.
Loring and Powell (1988)
Males are more likely to be diagnosed as schizophrenic than women by 36 percentage points.
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Male psychiatrists are more likely to diagnose the illness than female psychiatrists.
Weber et al. (2009)
Patients diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder are less likely to receive adequate medical care and so schizophrenics often had a host of physical illnesses.
Rosenhan (1973)
Fake patient study: hospital staff cannot spot healthy people
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When they look for actors who aren’t there, the think that ill people are pretending.
Malmburg et al. (1998)
Gender affects prognosis for schizophrenia.
Harrison et al. (2001)
Psycho-social factors (social skills, academic achievement etc.) affected prognosis for schizophrenia.
Whaley et al. (2001)
Kappa score for schizophrenic diagnosis as low as 0.11.
Mojtabi and Nicholson (1995)
Bizarre delusions are the central point of schizophrenia but when asked what were ‘bizarre’ and ‘non-bizarre’ delusions, senior US clinicians produced a kappa score of only 0.40.
Barnes (2004)
Ethnic culture hypothesis: schizophrenics from ethnic minorities experience less distress because they have supportive and protective social structures in their ethnic minority cultures.
Brekke and Barrio (1997)
Schizophrenics from ethnic majority groups are more symptomatic than those from ethnic minority groups.
Gottesman (1991)
Child Concordance rates:
2 schizophrenic parents: 46%
1 schizophrenic parent: 13%
1 schizophrenic sibling: 9%
Joseph (2004)
Concordance rate for MZ twins was 40.4% and 7.4% for DZ twins.
Tienari et al. (2000)
6.7% of adopted children who had schizophrenic biological mothers developed schizophrenia compared to 2% of the control.
Grilly (2002)
Giving L-dopa to individuals with Parkinson’s disease (to raise dopamine) caused them to exhibit schizophrenic symptoms.
Davis and Kahn (1991)
Positive symptoms of schizophrenia are cause by excess dopamine whilst negative symptoms are caused by a dopamine deficit.
Patel et al. (2010)
Schizophrenics have lower levels of dopamine in their dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
Wang and Deutch (2008)
Reducing dopamine in the prefrontal cortex of rats results in cognitive impairment.
Kringlen (1987)
“Because the adoptive parents evidently received information about the child’s biological parents, one might wonder who would adopt such a child”.
Leucht et al. (2013)
Antipsychotics were more effective than placebo in reducing positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia.
Moncrieff (2009)
Stimulants like cocaine and amphetamine can induce schizophrenic episodes.
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Post-mortem examinations have not supported the dopamine hypothesis.
Noll (2009)
Antipsychotics don’t work for 1/3 of patients and so the dopamine hypothesis doesn’t explain it all.
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A low EE family reduces a schizophrenics dependence on medication.
Bateson (1956)
Double Bind Theory.
Kuipers et al. (1983)
High EE relatives talk more and listen less than low EE relatives.
Linszen et al. (1997)
A patient returning to a high EE family is 4 times more likely to relapse than a patient returning to a low EE one.
Beck and Rector (2005)
Patients are unwilling or unable to consider that their delusions are wrong.
Aleman (2001)
Schizophrenics find it difficult to distinguish between imaginary and sensory-based perception.
Baker and Morrison (1998)
Hallucinating schizophrenics are more likely than non-hallucinating schizophrenics to misattribute self-generated auditory experience to an external source.
Tienari et al. (1994)
Children of schizophrenic biological mothers only developed the illness if they were adopted into ‘disturbed’ families.
Berger (1965)
Schizophrenics report having received more double bind statements from mothers than non-schizophrenics.
Liem (1974)
Found no evidence to support double bind statements coming from mothers of schizophrenics.
Hall and Levin (1980)
Found no difference in verbal and non-verbal communication for houses that produced schizophrenic and those that produced normal children.
Altorfer et al. (1998)
1/4 of patients showed no physiological response to stressful comments from relatives.
Lebell et al. (1993)
People perceive high EE comments differently, when they are not perceived as negative the likelihood of schizophrenia is reduced.
Sarin and Wallin (2014)
Positive symptoms of schizophrenia are down to faulty cognition.
Howes and Murray (2014)
Vulnerability factors combine with environmental factors to trigger abnormality in the dopaminergic systems (which causes the symptoms).
Kapur et al. (2000)
Between 60 and 75% of D₂ receptors in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway need to be blocked for typical antipsychotic drugs to work.
Leucht et al. (2012)
Antipsychotics are much better than placebo.
Crossley et al. (2010)
No significant differences in efficacy between typical and atypical antipsychotics but they had different side effects.
Typical antipsychotics = extrapyramidal side effects.
Atypical antipsychotics = weight gain.
Ross and Read (2004)
Prescription of medication reinforces the view that ‘I am ill’, and so patients will not look for other ways to improve their lives and conditions.
Read and Haslam (2004)
The public think that social/environmental factors are the cause of schizophrenia rather than biological factors.
NICE (2014)
UK health organisation: In combination with antipsychotics, CBTp was more effective at reducing symptom severity and improving functioning.
Addington and Addington (2005)
In the initial phases of schizophrenia, self-reflection in CBTp is inappropriate. After stabilisation with antipsychotics, groups sessions is most effective at this stage.
Haddock et al. (2013)
Only 7% of participants had been offered CBTp.
Freeman et al. (2013)
Of the minority of schizophrenics who are offered CBTp, few accept treatment and attend sessions.
Jüni et al. (2001)
Studies to test effectiveness of CBTp against drug therapy are very weak methodologically.
Wykes et al. (2008)
The more sound the study was methodologically, the less effective CBTp appeared to be.
Juahar et al. (2014)
CBTp had only a ‘small’ therapeutic effect on schizophrenics. In blind studies, CBTp had no effect.
Taylor and Perera (2015)
Because of such sketchy evidence, there have been mixed recommendations in the UK for CBTp.
SIGN (2013)
Scottish health organisation: recommended drug therapy rather than CBTp.
Garety et al. (2008)
Relapse rates for recipients of family therapy were 25% whereas for standard care this was 50%. However having a carer was just as effective.
Pharoah et al. (2010)
Family therapy boosted compliance with mediation and social functioning as well as reducing relapse rates although there was a lack of blinding in studies.
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Main reason for overall effectiveness was increased compliance with medication.
Wu et al. (2006)
Studies coming from China, about family therapy, falsely stated that random allocation had been used.
NCCMH (2009)
NICE review of family therapies: they save money for hospitals because relapse rates are so low.
Lobban et al. (2013)
60% of family interventions had at least one positive effect but methodology in family therapy studies is poor.
Ayllon and Azrin (1968)
Used token economy on female schizophrenia ward and found that the number of desirable behaviours sharply increased.
Sran and Borrero (2010)
Token economies work best when tokens can be exchanged for a wide variety of behaviours.
Kazdin (1977)
Token economies work best when there is little time between token receipt and token exchange.
Dickerson et al. (2005)
Token economies were effective at increasing the adaptive behaviours of schizophrenics.
Comer (2013)
Studies of token economies are uncontrolled as all the patients take part in the scheme. An increase in staff attention may account for the change in behaviour.
Corrigan (1991)
Token economy is very difficult to maintain outside of a clinical setting.
McMonagle and Sultana (2000)
If proper research could be carried out, we would know whether or not token economy worked. It is only really practiced in developing countries.
Varese et al. (2012)
Children who experienced severe trauma before the age of 16 were 3 times more likely to develop schizophrenia.
Vassos et al. (2012)
People living in an urban environment are 2 times more likely to develop schizophrenia than those in rural settings.
Tienari et al. (2004)
High-genetic-risk adoptees are far more likely to develop schizophrenia if they are raised in families judged as functioning poorly (using the Oulu Family Rating Scale, or OPAS).
Verdoux et al. (1998)
Those who experienced obstetric (lack of oxygen) birth complications were 4 times more likely to develop schizophrenia.
Romans-Clarkson et al. (1990)
Found no difference in mental health between urbanites and ruralists.
Paykel et al. (2000)
The difference in probability of schizophrenia between urban and rural environments are actually down to socio-economic factors.
Hammen (1992)
Poor coping methods for stress constructed in childhood will make someone’s life more stressful, increasing the risk of mental illness.
Børglum et al. (2014)
Pregnant women infected with cytomegalovirus was more likely to have a child with schizophrenia, but only if both she and the child had a certain gene defect.
