SB5 - Health, disease and the development of Medicines Flashcards
1
Q
What is the definition of Health?
A
A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity
As defined by WHO
2
Q
What are the 3 sub categories of Well-being?
A
- Physical
- Social
- Mental
3
Q
What does having a good Physical wellbeing include?
A
- Being free from disease
- Eating & sleeping well
- Limiting the intake of harmful substances (e.g. alcohol & drugs)
- Getting regular activity
4
Q
What does having a good Social wellbeing include?
A
- How well you get on with other people
- How your surroundings affect you
5
Q
What does having a good mental wellbeing include?
A
How you feel about yourself
6
Q
What is a disease?
A
A disorder of the body or mind that negatively affects an individual’s health
7
Q
What are the 2 categories of disease?
A
- Communicable
- Non communicable
8
Q
What is a communicable disease?
A
A disease that is caused by a pathogen which can be spread
between individuals (either directly or indirectly)
9
Q
Give some examples of communicable diseases
A
- Common cold
- Flu
- Parasitic infections
10
Q
What is a non-communicable disease?
A
A disease that cannot be spread between individuals.
–> Caused by the interaction of a number of risk factors (also usually genetic)
11
Q
Give some examples of Non communicable diseases
A
- Asthma
- Diabetes
- Cardiovascular disease
12
Q
How does the presence of one disease lead to a higher susceptibility to other diseases?
A
- One disease damages the immune system
- Damages the body’s natural barriers & defences
- Stops an organ from working effectively
13
Q
If a ‘disease damages the immune system’ how does it make a person more likely to have another disease?
A
Makes it easier for other pathogens to cause disease. Opportunistic viruses
—> Immune system protects the body from communicable diseases
14
Q
If ‘diseases damages the body’s natural barriers & defences’ how does it make a person more likely to have another disease?
A
Allows pathogens to get inside the body more easily
15
Q
If ‘diseases stops an organ from working effectively’ how does it make a person more likely to have another disease?
A
Makes more diseases likely to occur
16
Q
What is a pathogen?
A
A disease-causing organism, including:
viruses, bacteria, fungi and protists
17
Q
Describe the characteristics of Viruses?
A
● Very small
● Move into cells and makes many copies of itself
● Cell bursts and releases all of the copies into the bloodstream
● The damage and the destruction of the cells makes the individual feel ill
18
Q
Describe the characteristics of Bacteria?
A
● Small
● They multiply very quickly through dividing by a process called binary fission
● They produce toxins that can damage cells
19
Q
Describe the characteristics of Fungi?
A
● They can either be single celled or have a body made of hyphae
● They can produce spores which can be spread to other organisms
20
Q
Describe the characteristics of Protists?
A
Some are parasitic
21
Q
What does parasitic mean?
A
They use humans and animals as their hosts (live on and inside, causing damage)
22
Q
What is Hyphae?
A
Thread-like structures
23
Q
What is malnutrition?
A
A condition resulting from a diet lacking in, or too rich in nutrients.
24
Q
What category of pathogen is Cholera?
A
Bacteria
25
What are the symptoms of **Cholera**?
* Diarrhoea
* Stomach cramps
* Vomiting
26
How is **Cholera** spread?
Water
27
What *category of pathogen* is **Tuberculosis**?
Bacteria
28
What are the symptoms of **Tuberculosis**?
* Lung damage
* Coughing
* Tiredness
29
How is **Tuberculosis** spread?
Airborne
30
What *category of pathogen* is **Chalara ash dieback**?
Fungi
31
What are the symptoms of **Chalara ash dieback**?
* Leaf loss
* Bark lesions
32
How is **Chalara ash dieback** spread?
Airborne
33
What *category of pathogen* is **Malaria**?
Protist
34
What are the symptoms of **Malaria**?
Damage to blood & liver
35
How is **Malaria** spread?
Animal vectors
36
What *category of pathogen* is **HIV**?
Virus
37
What are the symptoms of **HIV**?
* Destroys white blood cells
* Leads to onset of AIDS
38
How is **HIV** spread?
Body fluids
39
What *category of pathogen* is **Helicobacter**?
Bacteria
40
What are the symptoms of **Helicobacter**?
Can lead to stomach ulcers
41
How is **Helicobacter** spread?
Oral transmission
42
What *category of pathogen* is **Ebola**?
Virus
43
What are the symptoms of **Ebola**?
* Can haemorrhagic fever
* Muscle weakness
* Muscle pain
44
How is **Ebola** spread?
Body fluids
45
What is **haemorrhagic fever**?
Fever accompanied with severe bleeding
46
What are the ways **pathogens** can spread?
* Direct contact
* Water
* Air
47
How can the damage that disease causes to populations be reduced?
By limiting the spread of the pathogens
48
What are some ways to **limit the spread of pathogens**?
* Improving hygiene
* Reducing contact
* Removing vectors
* Vaccination
49
How does being **vaccinated** help to reduce the spread of pathogens?
By injecting a small amount of a harmless pathogen into an individuals body
---> They can become immune so it won't affect them
---> Means they can't pass it onto individuals
50
How can you **remove vectors**?
Using pesticides or insecticides and removing their habitat
51
Name some ways to **improve hygiene**
* Hand washing
* Disinfectants
* Isolating raw meat
52
What are the ways **viruses** can **reproduce**?
* Lytic
* Lysogenic
53
Describe the **lytic pathway**
1. Using host cell machinery, the virus replicates its DNA.
2. Next, these are assembled to form new virus particles.
3. Once the host cell is full of virus particles, it bursts in a process called lysis
4. The process is then repeated with nearby cells.
54
Describe the **lysogenic pathway**
1. The virus uses restriction enzymes to insert its DNA into the host cell DNA - or it can insert plasmids into the host cell cytoplasm.
2. The host cell replicates, and the viral DNA is also copied in this process
3. The lytic cycle begins at this point, starting with the assembly of new viral particles
55
Give some example of some **STIs**
* Chlamydia
* HIV
56
What type of pathogen is **Chlamydia**?
Bacteria
57
What are the symptoms of **Chlamydia**?
* Often symptomless
* Painful urination
* Pelvic pain
* Can lead to infertility
58
How are **STIs** spread?
* Sexual contact
* Oral/ vaginal sex
59
How can the spread of **STIs** be reduced?
| Give an example
* Barrier methods of contraception (e.g. condoms)
* Abstaining from sexual activity
60
What are the *types* of plant barriers?
* Physical
* Chemical
61
Name some **physical** barriers that **plants** have to protect themselves from disease
* Thick cellulose cell wall
* Thick waxy cuticle
* Having the ability to close their stomata
* Covered in a layer of bark
62
How does a **cellulose cell wall** help protect plants from disease?
Impermeable to many pathogens
63
How does a **waxy cuticle** help protect plants from disease?
Acts as a barrier to most pathogens
64
How does a **layer of bark** help protect plants from disease?
Prevents pathogens from reaching the cells and tissues inside
65
How does **the ability to close stomata** help protect plants from disease?
Stops pathogens entering the plant
66
Name some **chemical** barriers that **plants** have to protect themselves from disease
* Some plants produce antimicrobial chemicals
* Some plants can release compounds that attract larger insects than the pests
67
**Some plants can release compounds that attract larger insects than the pests**, how does this protect plants against disease?
The larger insects feeds on the pests and stop them eating the plant
68
How can we benefit from **antimicrobial compounds**?
We can extract antimicrobial compounds from these plants for use in drugs (such as antibiotics)
69
How can we identify **diseases** on the **field**?
By using visible clues
70
What *disease* is this plant suffering from?
Chalara ash dieback
71
What *disease* is this plant suffering from?
Tobacco mosaic virus
72
What are the *symptoms* of the **Tobacco mosaic virus**?
Causes discolouration of leaves
73
What *disease* is this plant suffering from?
Bacterial canker on fruit trees
74
What are the *symptoms* of the **Bacterial canker**?
* Causes loss of leaves
* Stunted growth
* Pus-filled lesions on trunk
75
What *disease* is this plant suffering from?
Aphids
76
What are the *symptoms* of the **Aphids**?
Causes serious structural damage to plants
77
How can we identify **diseases** on the **laboratory**?
1. Cuttings are taken from the diseased plant.
2. The virus/bacterium causing the disease is grown on a culture medium/agar plate
3. The pathogen is tested and identified using a monoclonal antibody testing kit
78
What is the name of the **kit** that is used to identify & test a **pathogen**?
ELISA kit
79
Name some **physical** barriers that **humans** have to protect themselves from disease
* Mucus
* Cilia
* Skin
80
What produces **Mucus**?
Goblet cells
81
How does **Mucus** help protect **humans** from disease?
Mucus traps bacteria and other pathogens before they reach the lungs and cause infection
82
How does **Cilia** help protect **humans** from disease?
Wafts away mucus that has trapped pathogens, to be killed by stomach acid
83
How does the **skin** help protect **humans** from disease?
Provides a physical barrier against pathogens, protecting the tissues and cells beneath it from infection
84
Name some **chemical** barriers that **humans** have to protect themselves from disease
* Lysozymes
* Hydrochloric acid
85
Where are **Lysozymes** found in the body?
White blood cells
86
How does **Lysozymes** help protect **humans** from disease?
Used by white blood cells to kill and digest bacteria
87
Where is **Hydrochloric acid** found in the body?
Stomach
88
How does **Hydrochloric acid** help protect **humans** from disease?
Used to kill bacteria in food reaching the stomach
---> Prevents infection
89
Give some examples of *specific immune responses* in the **human** body
* Producing antibodies
* Producing antitoxins
* Phagocytosis
90
What is **Phagocytosis**?
White blood cells engulfing and consuming pathogens
91
How do **Phagocytes** protect the **human body**?
This destroys the pathogens, meaning they can no longer make you feel ill
92
What are **Phagocytes** an example of?
White blood cells
93
How does **producing antitoxins** protect the **human body**?
They neutralise the toxins released by the pathogen by binding to them
94
How does **producing antibodies** protect the **human body**?
* Each pathogen has a complementary antibody which it can bind to. Antibodies make the pathogens clump together
* Memory Lymphocytes are also produced. If you become infected again - complementary antibodies will be produced at a faster rate
95
What is **herd immunity**?
When the vaccination of a large proportion of the population provides some protection to unvaccinated individuals who are less likely to catch the disease
96
Explain the body's response to immunisation (using an inactive pathogen)
Vaccine contains a dead/ inactivated form of pathogen
---> This stimulates white blood cells to produce antibodies complementary to the antigens on the pathogen
97
What are the **advantages** of **vaccinations**?
* Epidemics can be prevented through herd immunity
* They have eradicated many diseases so far and reduced the occurrence of many
98
What are the **disadvantages** of **vaccinations**?
* They are not always effective in providing immunity
* Bad reactions can occur in response to vaccines (although very rare)
99
Why can **antibiotics** only be used to treat **bacterial infections**?
* Antibiotics inhibit cell processes in the bacterium
---> So bacteria are only susceptible to antibiotics
* Viruses and other pathogens often use cell machinery in host cells to reproduce
---> Unaffected by antibiotics
100
What is **aseptic technique**?
Name given to the laboratory procedures carried out to prevent the contamination of pure cultures of microorganisms
101
What are the **ways** that we can grow **microorganisms** in the lab?
* Nutrient broth solution
* Agar gel plate
102
What is a **nutrient broth solution** also known as?
Culture medium
103
Explain how a **culture medium** works
Uses a liquid/ gel to provide all the nutrients needed for bacteria to grow successfully
104
What does a **culture medium** need to contain?
* Carbohydrates - energy
* Nitrogen - protein synthesis
* Other minerals
105
Explain how an **agar gel plate** works
* Sterilised agar jelly is poured into a sterilised Petri dish , which is left to cool and set
* Inoculating loops are dipped in a solution of the microorganism and spread over the agar evenly
* A lid is taped on and the plate is incubated for a few days so the microorganisms can grow (stored upside down)
106
# Core practical: Investigating the effects of antiseptics and antibiotics
Why must **'Petri dishes and culture media be sterilised before use'**?
It may be contaminated with other microorganisms:
* Could be harmless but will compete with desired bacteria for nutrients & space
* If they are harmful, it could produce a new pathogen
107
# Core practical: Investigating the effects of antiseptics and antibiotics
Why must **'Inoculating loops must be sterilised'**?
Kills unwanted microorganisms
108
# Core practical: Investigating the effects of antiseptics and antibiotics
How are **Inoculating loops sterilised**?
By passing them through a flame
109
# Core practical: Investigating the effects of antiseptics and antibiotics
Why must **'The lid of the Petri dish should be sealed (but not completely) with tape'**?
* Sealing stops airborne microorganisms from contaminating the culture
* It **should not** be sealed all the way around as this would result in
harmful anaerobic bacteria growing
110
# Core practical: Investigating the effects of antiseptics and antibiotics
Why must **'The Petri dish should be be stored upside down'**?
Prevents condensation from the lid landing on the agar surface and disrupting growth
111
# Core practical: Investigating the effects of antiseptics and antibiotics
Why must **'The culture should be incubated at 25 degrees'**?
If it were incubated @ a higher temp (near human body temp) it would be more likely that bacteria could be harmful to humans
@ A Lower temp, colonies of such bacteria won't be able to grow
112
# Core practical: Investigating the effects of antiseptics and antibiotics
How do we *calculate* the **cross sectional area** of a **bacteria culture**?
Using the area of a circle
113
# Core practical: Investigating the effects of antiseptics and antibiotics
How do we determine the **effectiveness of an antibiotic** in an agar plate?
By calculating the cross sectional area of a bacterial culture
114
# Core practical: Investigating the effects of antiseptics and antibiotics
How do we **grow a bacterial culture**?
1) Take a petri dish that has been pre-poured with agar gel, and sterilise it in an autoclave before use
2) Use an inoculating loop to sterilise
3) Seal the top of the plate using tape (but not completely)
4) Incubate the culture at 35 degrees
5) Apply a filter paper soaked in antibiotic solution to the centre of the agar plate & wait 24 hours (or until there is no further change)
115
# Core practical: Investigating the effects of antiseptics and antibiotics
How do we **calculate the effectiveness of the antibiotic**?
1) Use a ruler to measure the diameter of the circle taken yo by the bacterial culture & record
2) Repeat for the diameter of the clear agar jelly in the centre (where the antibiotic has killed the bacteria)
3) Get the radius by dividing the diameters by 2. Calculate area of the circle
4) Divide the smaller circle by the larger and multiply by 100. This gives the percentage of the bacterial culture that has been destroyed by the antibiotic
116
What do **new drugs** need to be tested for?
* Safety
* Effectiveness
* Dosage
117
Why do **new drugs** need to be tested for **safety**?
Important as some drugs are toxic, and have other side effects that might be harmful to people
118
Why do **new drugs** need to be tested for **effectiveness**?
Checks how well the drug cures the disease, or improves symptoms
119
Why do **new drugs** need to be tested for **dosage**?
Dosage varies, and has to closely controlled, as too high a concentration might be toxic
120
What are the **main stages** of **testing new drugs**?
* Preclinical drug trials
* Animal trials
* Human clinical trials
121
Describe what are the **preclinical trials**
Drugs are tested using computer models and human cells grown in the laboratory
122
What is the **purpose** of the **preclinical trials**
Allows the efficacy and possible side effects to be tested
123
Describe what are the **animal trials**
Drugs are tested on animals
Typical tests:
Giving a known amount of the substance to the animals, then monitoring them carefully for any side-effects
124
Describe what are the **human clinical trials**
They are tested on healthy volunteers to check that they are safe
THEN tested on people with the illness to ensure that they are safe and that they work
125
What is a **disadvantage** of **human clinical trials**?
Could be dangerous
126
What are **monoclonal antibodies**?
Identical antibodies, that have been produced from the same immune cell
127
What are **antibodies**?
Proteins produced by lymphocytes
128
How are **monoclonal antibodies** produced?
1. Scientists obtain mice lymphocytes, which have been stimulated to produce a specific antibody
2. They are combined with tumour cells (do not make antibodies but divide rapidly), to form a cell called a hybridoma
3. The hybridoma can divide to produce clones of itself, which all produce the same antibody
4. The antibodies are collected and purified
129
Name some **uses** of **monoclonal antibodies**?
* Pregnancy tests
* Identifies blood clots
* In research to find/ identify certain molecules on a cell/tissue
* Treatment of disease (e.g. Cancer)
130
What **hormone** is present in women who are **pregnant**?
hCG
131
Describe the **structure** of a **pregnancy test**?
1st section contains mobile antibodies complementary to the hCG hormone (antibodies are also attached to the coloured beads)
2nd section has stationary antibodies complementary to the
hCG hormone which are stuck down to the stick
132
Describe how a **pregnancy test** works
If hCG is present it binds to the mobile antibodies attached to blue beads to form hCG/antibody complexes
Carried in the flow of liquid to the second section
Stationary antibodies then bind to the HCG/antibody complexes
they are each bound to a blue bead, results in a blue line
133
What are the **advantages** of using **monoclonal antibodies**?
1) They only bind to specific cells, meaning healthy cells are not affected
2) Can be engineered to treat many different conditions
3) Making monoclonal antibodies for the first time can be time consuming
134
What are the **disadvantages** of using **monoclonal antibodies**?
* It is difficult to attach monoclonal antibodies to drugs
* Expensive to develop
* As they were produced from mice lymphocytes, they often triggered an immune response when used in humans
135
Describe how **monoclonal antibodies** can be used to identify **blood clots**?
The monoclonal antibodies can be attached to dyes that will glow
fluorescently under UV light or attached to radioactive elements which can be detected with special camera
136
How are **monoclonal antibodies** targeted to **cancer cells**?
Cancer cells have antigens on their cell membranes (tumour markers) which can be targeted
137
Describe *what ways* **monoclonal antibodies** can be used to treat **cancer**?
* Encourage immune system to attack cancer cells directly
* Using monoclonal antibodies to transport toxic drugs, chemicals or radioactive substances as they can only bind to cancer cells
* Injecting someone so the monoclonal antibodies will bind with these cancer cells and clump them together.
---> Easier to remove
138
What are **non-communicable diseases** caused by?
Interaction of a number of different factors
139
What *factors* increase the likelihood of having **cardiovascular diseases**?
Can be caused by high dietary intake of saturated fat w/ a sedentary lifestyle
140
What *factors* increase the likelihood of having certain forms of **cancer**?
Can be contributed to by various factors:
* Smoking
* Age
* Genetics
141
What *factors* increase the likelihood of having **lung & liver diseases**?
* Smoking
* High alcohol intake
* Age & genetics
142
What *factors* increase the likelihood of having **vitamin & nutritional deficiencies**?
* Being anorexic
* Those who can’t absorb or use nutrients properly
* Obesity
* Genetics
143
Describe how **obesity** can contribute to increasing a persons likelihood of having **non-communicable diseases**?
* Cardiovascular disease and high blood pressure: Lipid deposits form inside blood vessels
* Type 2 diabetes: As Insulin as won't be as effective when there is a high proportion of body fat
*
144
Describe how **malnutrition** can contribute to increasing a persons likelihood of having **non-communicable diseases**?
Not having enough vitamins/ nutrients will cause problems
---> Symptoms can be different depending on the vitamin or nutrient that is deficient
145
What are some ways to determine if a person is **obese, underweight or healthy**?
* BMI
* Waist: Hip ratio
146
What is the *equation* for **BMI**?
147
Describe how **liver disease** can contribute to increasing a persons likelihood of having **non-communicable diseases**?
Usually caused by high alcohol intake:
* Liver disease can lead to liver
cancer & impaired liver function
* Can also lead to vitamin deficiencies
148
Describe how **lung disease** can contribute to increasing a persons likelihood of having **non-communicable diseases**?
Usually caused by/ related to smoking
Cigarettes have lots of different chemicals & can cause different problems
149
Name the *different treatment methods* to treat **cardiovascular diseases**
* Life-long medication
* Lifestyle changes
* Surgical procedures
150
Explain how **life-long medication** can be used to treat **cardiovascular diseases**
Several medications that will either reduce cholesterol or reduce blood pressure
151
Explain how **lifestyle changes** can be used to treat **cardiovascular diseases**
Lifestyle changes are important in preventing and treating cardiovascular disease:
* Reducing the amount of saturated fat we eat can reduce the risk of developing fat deposits in the arteries & high cholesterol
* Maintaining a healthy BMI can reduce strain on the heart
---> Regular exercise
* Reducing salt & stress levels for High bp
152
Explain how **surgical procedures** can be used to treat **cardiovascular diseases**
* Coronary artery bypass - Blocked sections of arteries are bypassed
* Stents - Widens arteries
