Russia and its rulers (1855-1964) Flashcards
This topic consists of….
- Alexander II domestic reforms
- The provisional government
- Khrushchev in power 1956–1964
When was the rule of Alexander II?
1855- 1881
When was the rule of Alexander III?
1881 - 1894
When was the rule of Nicholas II?
1894 - 1917
Did Alexander the 3rd reverse many of the liberal policies that had occured under Alexander II?
Yes
What did Alexander III introduce to control the discontent amongst the national minority groups?
Russification
Who did Alexander III appoint as finance minster to help modernise the Russian economy?
Sergei Witte
What did the 1881 Statute of State Security do?
It sanctioned a greater use of repression
What did Sergei Witte do under the rule of Nicholas II?
He continued to help reform the economy and there was a particular emphasis on the expansion of heavy industries and the railways
What did Nicholas II do because of the unrest in 1905?
He ordered a representative political chamber to be set up
What were some reforms under Nicholas II?
Education was expanded and there was a relaxation in censorship
How was opposition to Nicholas II rule?
it became more organised in the form of the radicals and the liberals
Nicholas engaged in a war with Japan which fuelled the…
revolution of 1905
When was Nicholas II forced to abdicate?
In 1917, and a provisional government was introduced
Did Alexander III try to introduce any reforms?
Not really, he was very repressive
When was the rule of Lenin?
1917 - 1924
When was the rule of Stalin ?
1928-1953
What was Stalin’s nickname?
The red Tsar
When was the rule of Khrushchev?
1953 - 1964
How did Lenin solve the problem of WW1?
- By authorising the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litorsk in March 1918.
- This was a peace treaty with Germany, where the terms for Russia were harsh
What was the Treaty of Brest-Litorsk?
a peace treaty with Germany, where the terms for Russia were harsh
How did Lenin establish Bolshevik authority?
Through the setting up of the Soviet of People’s Commissars/ Sovnarkom. This banned opposition and enforced policies through the new secret police
How did Lenin win the civil war?
using the red army and the secret police
What did Lenin replace the policy of war communism with?
the New Economic Policy
Is it true that under Lenin’s rule, many opposition groups either went underground or became difficult to control because of the geographical size of Russia?
Yes
Did the scale of repression increase under Stalin?
- Yes
- Used secret police to arrest the opposition.
- Arrested opposition.
- ## Show trials and other forms of propaganda were used to control people’s behaviour.
How did Stalin tackle agricultural problems?
- Through the imposition of collectivisation and dekulakisation. These were both policies that were rooted in repression.
What did Stalin’s industrial policy focus on?
centralised planning and a move away from the semblance of the free market. Workers who didn’t meet targets were severely punished
Who was more preferred, Stalin or Lenin?
Lenin
Did the Cold War begin under Stalin’s rule?
Yes
Did Russia become involved in WW2?
Yes, Russia was invaded by Nazi Germany
When did Stalin die?
In 1953
When was WW2?
1939 - 1945
Why did Khrushchev denounce the rule of Stalin?
because of the negative outlook he’d placed on Russia
Did Khrushchev carry on with the centralised planning of the economy ?
Yes, but with more of a focus on the enhancement of light and consumer industries
What was Khrushchev’s agricultural policy?
the ‘Virgin Land Campaign’, which aimed to increase the amount of land under plough
What is an example of a social improvement programme put into operation by Khrushchev ?
Housing
Is it true that under Khrushchev political prisoners were released and the Gulag was mostly made redundant?
Ys, but Russian citizens were still subject to rule through the autocracy
Were the communists more successful in wars than the tsars?
Yes
Who was the only communist who made an attempt to improve working and living conditions?
Khrushchev
Under the Tsar’s, what was the driving force of Russia’s economy?
Agriculture, as it had to feed Russia’s growing population which grew from 56 million in 1831 to 98 million in 1881.
Under the Tsar’s, what was Russia’s most valuable export?
Grain
What were the similarities between Communism and Tsarism?
- Both systems were very rigid and highly illiberal.
- Both systems were authoritarian and rejected democracy.
- Both centralised power to a huge extent.
- Both used violence and excessive repression to control their people.
- Both established personality cults around their leaders.
- Both craved industrialisation and economic modernisation
What were the differences between Communism and Tsarism?
- Tsarism looked to the past and was based on very medieval ideas, such as the Divine right of kings and the class system. in contrast, marxism was more modern.
- Under the Tsar’s rule, the landed nobility had a very privileged system in society. Whereas under the communist regime, the nobles were stripped of their land, forced into exile, or destroyed as a class.
- Under the Communists, the link between the church and the state started to shut down churches across russia.
- Industry was Nationalised after 1917 and the status of many professions fell.
- Rights for urban workers increased/improved.
When was the Emancipation Statute passed?
In February 1861
In 1861, who did the Emancipation Edict effect?
Only the privately-owned serfs and the state serfs.
what were state serfs?
government-owned serfs
When were the state serfs and the privately owned serfs emancipated?
In 1866
Were serfs free to marry whoever they wanted after the emancipation edict was passed ?
Yes
On average, how much less land did peasant families farm after emancipation?
20% less
What did the government do to appease the nobles after the emancipation statute was passed?
They compensated the landowners
How long did freed serfs have to pay state redemption taxes?
For 49 years
What interest rate did serfs have to pay their state redemption taxes?
6%
What did serfs have to do before they could legally own land?
Once they had payed off all of their state redemption taxes
Who basically replaced landlords after the emancipation?
the local mir (the village council)
As well as paying off the state redemption taxes, what else did a serf have to do in order to own land?
a serf had to consult with the mir
Who received better treatment- state serfs or private serfs?
State peasants as they were usually given more land
How liberal was the emancipation?
- Not very liberal at all- serfs were only given rights in name, really conditions were exactly the same as they had been before.
- Only really free to marry.
- Very unlikely that they’d be able to pay off all of the state redemption taxes before their death.
- Serfs still under the control of the mir
Why did Alexander II introduce army reforms?
Because Russia’s defeat in the crimean war highlighted how inefficient the army was and how inadequately trained the serf soldiers were.
When was recruitment in the army suspended ?
in 1856 because the army was too large and ineffcient
What did Alexander II do with military colonies?
He abolished them
Who was liable to conscription under Alexander II’s army reforms?
Every man over 20 who was medically fit
What did Alexander II raise the military reserve to?
He raised the military reserve from 210,000 to 553,000 by 1870
what was the main army reform?
training and discipline of soldiers was made more humane and efficient
How liberal were the army reforms?
- Quite liberal because conditions for soldiers in the army improved and they were now treated a lot better.
- Members of the army only need to be enlisted for 15 years, and this had been cut down from 25.
-
When were the zemstva created?
in 1864
what was the zemstva?
bodies of local government where members were chosen by 3 electoral colleges, which supposedly represented the peasants, the townspeople and the gentry. In actuality, the peasants weren’t represented at all though.
What did the responsibilities of the zemstva include?
- Public health
- Prisons
- Roads
- Agriculture
- The relief of famine
- Education
When were dumas set up in towns and cities?
In 1870, the dumas had very similar responsibilities to the zemstvas.
Did the duma have power over the police?
No
What did the Provincial government have the power to do to all of zemstvo decisions?
The provincial government had the power to countermand/veto all zemstvo conditions
Were the zemstvo provided with enough money by the government?
No and so they were always short of money
Is it true that the zemstva helped provide opportunities for many people who hadn’t been involved in political life before, such as peasants?
Yes
How liberal were the local government reforms?
- In the middle.
- Peasants were now more involved in political life than they had ever been before, but this was still very minimal and it was the votes and the say of the nobles that mattered the most.
- The zemstva and the duma did try to improve conditions in the locality, such as roads and agriculture, however, they were usually too underfunded to be able to carry out their tasks efficiently
- The zemstva and the duma still had significantly less powers than the central government because they didn’t have any power over the police and their decisions could easily be overturned.
When were the reforms of the legal system introduced?
in november 1864
DId Alexander II introduce juries as part of his reforms of the law?
Yes
Why was the impact of judges now being well paid?
that they were less likely to take bribes and so they would judge fairer
Were courts now open to the public?
yes
DId Alexander soon remove poitical cases from the jusrisdiction of the courts?
yes
What form of terror was still present in court?
The police of the third section were still active and able to arrest people as they wished
Could the accused now hire lawyers?
yes and so they were presumed innocent until proven guilty
How liberal were the reforms of the law?
- quite liberal.
- peasants and poor people now had a chance of jsutice because of the non-biased juries and the presence of lawyers. People were also presumed innocent until proven guilty.
- However, police were still present and could arrest whoever they wished
from what year did editors no longer have to get prior approval of their texts?
from 1865 onwards
who maintained the power to suspend and close publications and fire their publishers?
the ministry of the interior
when was the ministry of interior given the power to forbid certain topics from discussion?
1873
How liberal were the censorship and press reforms?
not very liberal because whilst there was a slight relaxation of censorship, the ministry of the interior still held a lot of power over what could be published and what couldn’t be published.
after the educational reforms introduced by alexander II, did illiteracy numbers in russia reduce?
Yes
Who was a firm supporter of the emancipation due to its impact on the army?
War minster, D.MIlyutin
What was the Pugaschov revolt of the 1770’s?
a major serf uprsing inspred by the rumours of liberation and it resulted in thousands of lords killed. Alexander feared a revolt of this level reocurring
How did Serfdom harm the economy?
as serfs were tied to the land, they were unable to move to towns and cities and work in industry.
were domestic serfs given land?
no
Who was responsible for collecting redemption payments?
the mir
after the first emancipation, what as their a desire for amongst the peasants?
a second more liberal emancipation
How many peasant riots were reported in the first 4 months of the emancipations release?
647 peasant riots, and 70 peasants were killed by troops at Bezdna in 1861
How much and were lords forced to sell to peasants?
about 1/3
What percentage of members of the zemstva were chosen by the peasants?
40 %
Did nobles hold a lot of power in the zemstva?
yes but this usually didn’t completely satisfy the nobles
Give an example of zemstavs being very slowly introduced?
by 1914, still only 43 out of 70 provinces had zemstvas
is it true that provincial government had the power ro reverse zemstva decisions they considered to be ‘contrary to the laws and to the general welfare state’?
yes
What did the 1863 university statute give?
autonomy, or self rule
under the educational reforms were primary and secondary class sizes increased?
yes
what did the number of students increase to?
the number of students increased from 3,600 to 10,000.
when was the press allowed to discuss government policy ?
from 1865
how many soldiers were educated in the 1870’s to 90’s?
2-3 million solders
were the army reforms the only major reform that posed a minimal threat to Alexander II’s autocracy?
yes
who were slavophiles?
slavs who were superior to the western europeans
who were the westernisers?
those who wanted to modernise russia in the same way as the west
what was the period of the crimean war?
1853-56
who fought in the crimean war?
it was britain, france and the ottoman empire Vs Russia
Why was Russia’s defeat in the crimean war embarassing?
because…
- their inability to deploy human resources and materials and their poor quality rifles and artillery exposed russia’s lack of industrial strenght.
- the army was also exposed as having poor leadership and as being inefficient due to a large number of inadequately trained serfs.
Why did Russia need to be modernised through the use of railways?
because russia was so big and they needed an efficient way of transporting resources around the country
Did Alexander II see serfdom as inhumane?
yes
How did serfdom impact russia’s global image?
serfdom tarnished russia’s global image because serfdom was seen as immoral and as a fom of slavery
What are the 2 main reasons for Alexander introducing the reforms?
- Russia’s defeat in the crimea war.
- Alexander wanting to preserve the autocratic system
Why did Alexander II need to introduce reforms to preserve the autocratic system?
because if Alexander II didn’t give concessions to the peasants, the serfs may have ended up revolting and because there were so many peasants in Russia, a peasant uprising would’ve been very hard to suppress.
Crimeanwar
What happened in November 1853?
- Russians destroyed the Turkish fleet.
- Over 4,000 Turks were killed and the incident sparked protests from Britain and France
What happened in February 1854?
- Britain and France sent Russia an ultimatum to back down and withdraw from Moldova and Wallachia.
- This ultimatum was ignored by Russia
crimean war
What happened in March 1854?
Britain and France declared war on Russia
crimean war
What happened in August 1854?
- Russia pulled their troops out of the principalities because they believed that Austria was going to join the war.
- Britain seemed to want to prolong the war in order to inflict maximum damage in Russia.
crimean war
What happened in September 1854?
- Britain and France invaded the Crimea.
- Russia lost 6,000 troops at the battle of alma. This was down to Russia using outdated guns and some of these guns dated back to 1799
What happened in February 1855?
Nicholas I died and was replaced by his son Alexander II
What happened from October 1854 to September 1855?
- Sevastopol was under siege by British and French forces.
- Russia was losing 2000 to 3000 casualties daily by Summer 1855.
- Russia surrendered thr port in September which was a major setback for Russia.
- 500,000 Russian troops died overall.
Post crimean war
What happened in March 1856?
- Russia agreed to the Treaty of Paris.
- Russia agreed to:
- Give up its claim to the principalities.
- Give back parts of South Western Russia to moldova.
- Russia wasn’t allowed to keep a fleet in the black sea
Why did many landowners become bankrupt after the emancipation?
Because they either used their compensation money to pay off all their debts or they wasted it
How much did the total number of landowners fall by in Russia between 1877 and 1905?
From 115,000 to 107,000 because they sold land off to peasants as they didn’t see it as profitable anymore
After the reforms, what happened to the social structure in Russia?
The nobility decreased in size and an emerging middle class grew
How much did the industrial workforce expand by by 1887?
The industrial workforce expanded from 860,009 to 1,320,000 by 1887
company
What’s an example of an industrial success that came out of the reforms?
The Nobel brothers set up the Naptha Extraction company in 1879 to exploit the oil reserves at Baku in the Caucasus.
Did the reforms result in increased coal production?
Yes
How was the growing railway system in the 1860’s and 1870’s constructed ?
From imported materials
What did Russias railway network grow to?
Russias railway network grew from 2,200 to 14,200 miles
Why was there a growing market in the countryside for manufactured goods?
Because of russias growing population
Describe the attempt on the Tsar’s life in April 1866
- There was an attempt on the Tsar’s life in April 1866 by disillusioned student Dmitri Karakozov.
- He was an idealistic landowner who had given away his possessions to his peasants when they were freed
Who were the Narodniks?
Idealistic young members of the gentry and intelligentsia who tried to change the political system from within by mobilising the peasants from 1870 onwards
Did the government set up a special department of the government to try political cases?
Yes
When was the tsar killed?
In 1881
How many peasant riots were there before the emancipation?
1467
How many peasant riots were there after the emancipation?
647
Why was Alexander II more repressive from 1866 onwards?
Because there was more opposition to his autocracy
Did housing remain the same for peasants post emancipation?
Yes
After the reforms, what was the new housing in the cities like?
It was of very poor quality
Overall, we’re Alexander II’s reforms very impactful?
No, changes were very minimal and they resulted in a lot of opposition from people who no longer wanted an autocracy and from people who felt as though the reforms had not gone far enough
What does the word ‘autocrat’ come from?
The Greek word for ‘self rule’
Give some key features of a Tsarist autocracy:
- selected by God.
- Violent repression of real or imagined opposition.
- Service state
- Absolute power that wasn’t shared with anyone else.
- Power of monarchy legally unrestricted.
- Church justified autocracy.
- No democracy.
- Cult of personality built around the Tsar
How many peasant riots were there in the first 4 months after the emancipation edict was announced?
647
What happened to the curriculum as a result of Alexander II’s education reforms?
The curriculum broadened
Is it true that as a result of Alexander II’s educational reforms, professors were allowed to study abroad for the very first time?
Yes
Give an example of Glasnost being acheived under Alexander II
- By 1864, over 2000 books had been published, including a book called ‘Fathers and sons’, which was critical of the government.
Under Alexander II, is is true that Jews were able to settle outside of the Pale settlement, were allowed into higher education, and were allowed to work for the government?
Yes
What percentage of the Zemstvos were made up by the gentry ?
74%
Is it true that by 1905, the nobles owned 40% less land than they had owned in 1861?
Yes
In terms of education, what happened in 1870?
The first schools to offer girls non-vocational education was authorised.
Were many liberal professors appointed in universities and schools?
Yes
Is it true that in the crimean war, the rifles of the british and french could fire further and more accurately?
Yes
Is it true that during the Crimean war, only 4% of russian troops could be equipped with the newer, longer ranged rifles?
Yes, which is in comparison to 33% of French troops and 50% of British troops
