Rural Geografi Flashcards
Vad är ett exempel på en famine/hungersnöd på grund av problem inom en eller flera av dimensionerna för matsäkerhet?
Hungersnöd i Nordkorea under 1998 var associerad med missväxt i samband med en autokratisk regim som prioriterat nationell säkerhet och skydd av elitens intressen - Ledde Sen till att föreslå begreppet Entitlements
Vilka är de tre dimensionerna som påverkar matsäkerhet?
- Availability/Tillgänglighet – the supply-side factors that shape the availablity of sufficient quantities of food of appropriate quality.
- Access/Tillgång - the political, social, cultural and economic processes that connect supply-side processes to individuals.
- Utilization/använding – the elements of clean water, sanitation and health care that ensure that food made available and is accessible (ie the two above) generates nutritional well-being to consumers
STABILITY of the other three dimensions over time Even if your food intake is adequate today, you are still considered to be food insecure if you have inadequate access to food on a periodic basis, risking a deterioration of your nutritional status. Adverse weather conditions, political instability, or economic factors (unemployment, rising food prices) may have an impact on your food security status.
Vad innebär matsäkerhet?
Matssäkerhet råder när alla människor, vid alla tidpunkter, har fysisk och ekonomisk tillgång till tillräckligt säker och näringsrik mat som uppfyller deras kostbehov och matpreferenser för ett aktivt och hälsosamt liv.
What is chronic- and transitory food insecurity?
Chronic food insecurity is often the result of extended periods of poverty, lack of assets and inadequate access to productive or financial resources.
Conversely, transitory food insecurity is primarily caused by short-term shocks and fluctuations in food availability and food access, including year-to-year variations in domestic food production, food prices and household incomes.
How do we respond to chronic- and transitory food insecurity?
Conversely, transitory food insecurity is relatively unpredictable and can emerge suddenly. This unpredictability makes planning and programming more difficult and requires different capacities and types of intervention, including early warning capacity and safety net programmes.
Vilka är Världsbankens 3D? vad är syftet och problemen med dessa?
World Bank menade att det vore ett bra sätt att få folk att flytta till städerna – 3D’s: encourage population Density (i.e. population growth in cities), Distance (encouraging people to be mobile, in search of jobs), and Division (removing barriers like tariffs and some restrictions on migration that inhibit the flow of goods abd people)
The assumption of these vision is that
1. Large-scale agriculture enables food to be produced at lower costs and
2. the higher wages paid in the cities places more money in the pockets of the poor:
= a tandem process that generates quantum improvements in food security.
(Brazil poster child for these visions, their way of adressing hunger and poverty has been to encourage large-scale agriculture to generate export income and jobs.)
HOWEVER, the process of rural inhabitants selling their plots and moving to cities is only a viable option if the country is in that stage of development: where sufficient numbers of city-based jobs are available. Otherwise the rural migrants will form squatter-settlements with highly insecure food and economic prospects.
A more REASONABLE approach would be to establish more gradualist, ”multi-track” strategies for rural piverty-reduction. Those with this view see it as the smallowners of land fill a functional role in allowing own-production for basic sustenance. In other words, food security strategies should aim to bolster the livelihoods of the poor through constructing viable rural economies, rather than advocating abandonment of rural settlements for an uncertain urban life.
Colliers lösning på matosäkerhet bland bönder i u-länder var..
Collier menade att storföretag bör ta över, och mindre bönder bör sälja deras lotter.
Vad är syftet och problemen med Food aid?
Odla själv, köpa med pengar eller med matbidrag av olika typer.
Många komletterar med alla tre sätt – kan ha sociala och ekonomiska konsekvenser
Crucial in preventing starving deaths in times of crisis, however it can have adverse complications in the long-term, creating cycles of food-aid dependency. Displacement effects of food aid. If the rural populations are dependant on the sale of agricultural outputs, periodic large disburcementscan swamp local markets, bringing the prices down.
Also, food aid disbursements can often be donor-driven (meaning that they serve the interests of the sender not the recipients). It can be trying to prop up the incomes of the seed form which is the food aid is coming form, like the US.
= but these problems arise when food aid is managed impoperly – corruption/maladministration etc.
(Technologies will help with “leakages” by electronic cards etc.)
Avindustrialisering, vad är det?
En teori bakom varför städer krymper är deindustrialization, the process of disinvestment from industrial urban centers.
This theory of shrinking cities is mainly focused on post-World War II Europe. Following World War II, global economic power shifted from Western Europe to the United States. At this moment, manufacturing declined in Western Europe as it increased within the United States. The result was a shift away from Western European industrialization and a movement towards alternative industry. This economic shift is clearly seen through the United Kingdom’s rise of a service sector economy. With a shift in industry, however, many jobs were lost or outsourced. The result was urban decline and the massive demographic movement from former industrial urban centers into suburban and rural locals
Vad var “Gröna vågen” i Sverige?
Gröna vågen var en trend som innebar att många unga familjer i Sverige under 1970-talet flyttade från storstäderna och ut på landsbygden som en del i en ruraliseringsvåg.
För första gången minskade storstädernas invånarantal och ökade landsbygdens. Detta eftersom man ville leva ett enkelt liv utan moderna bekvämligheter och storstadsstress, och många av dessa så kallade grönavågare var även miljömedvetna. Termen gröna vågen behöver dock inte avse flytt till ren landsbygd eller omoderna förhållande, utan kan också avse utflyttningen från städerna till nybyggda villa- och radhusförorter under 1970-talet och åren däromkring. Även senare trender av liknande karaktär har gått under samma namn.
Vad innebär ruralisering eller counterurbanization?
Ruralisering är motsatsen till urbanisering, och innebär en process där människor flyttar från stad till landsbygd.
Ruralisering kan ha olika orsaker. Den främsta kan sägas vara problem med städernas mat-, vatten- eller energiförsörjning, vilket får människor att flytta närmare dessa resursers källor, dvs till landsbygden.
Under sen tid har ruralisering också förekommit som ett val av livsstil, bl.a. under 1970-talets gröna våg, där begrepp som hälsa, tid och gemenskap, vägde tyngre än de rena försörjningsbehoven.
En annan stor ruraliseringsvåg inträffade i Storbritannien på 1600-talet efter problem med vedförsörjningen. Ruraliseringsvågor har också inträffat i Asien i äldre tid, särskilt i Kina, samt i Sydamerikas högkulturer.
Någon större ruraliseringsvåg har aldrig inträffat i Skandinavien, eftersom större städer och urbanisering är ett relativt sent fenomen där. Fortfarande på 1880-talet bodde över 85% av befolkningen på landsbygden, och först på 1950-talet kan en majoritet av skandinaverna sägas ha bott i någon form av städer.
What is the definition of counter-urbanization?
populations increases in rural areas beyond the commuting range of major urban areas
Den största rurala-urbana trenden är byavfolkning men i vissa västländer förekommer ett annat fenomen, nämligen counter-urbanization - vad innebär det och vad har det för konsekvenser? ge exempel
1970-talet USA, drivet av ökande netto-migration, växte mindre städer snabbare än stora städer. Likaså i UK under 1980-90-talen.
Varför?
-de riktiga och upplevda “Diseconomies of scale” (-are the forces that cause larger firms and governments to produce goods and services at increased per-unit costs. The concept is the opposite of economies of scale.)
av stora städer
- förändringar i arbete (tillverkning->service)
- internet och större mobilitet
- Kulturella skiften - trötta på höga kostnaden av urbant liv dvs. minskad luftkvalitet, trängsel osv. Rural idyll, livsstil som i Nya zealand
——-COUNTERURBANIZATION tids och rumsspecifik pga:
relaterat till period av tillverknings och service-decentralisering i Europa och USA under 1970-1980.
-No doubt that the social structure of the rural population in the global North is shifting because of demographic change.
-Suburbanization
-Exurbanization 90-tal: upper class city dwellers moved out of the city, beyond the suburbs, to live in high-end housing in the countryside
-White flight: suburbanization and the large-scale migration of whites of various European ancestries from racially mixed urban regions to more racially homogeneous suburban regions.
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Shrinking Cities
Whatever its causes, counterurbanization has had serious effects on cities. As a result of counterurbanization, some cities are now losing population. These shrinking cities may face serious problems as they attempt to maintain infrastructure built for a much larger population. As cities shrink, residents must contribute more per capita to maintain fixed infrastructure costs
vad innebär avfolkning?
iom urbanisering, konsekvenser: unga och kompetenta lämpar rural områden för städerna - kvar är en åldrande och minskande befolkning
Varför ökade folkmängden på 1700-talet?
Under 1700-talets slut och början på 1800-talet skedde något stort i Sverige och övriga västvärlden. Antalet barn som överlevde till vuxen ålder ökade dramatiskt. I Sverige skyllde poeten Esaias Tegnér på: “Freden, vaccinet och potäterna”. Men den industriella revolutionen och bättre utbildningsnivå fick också läggas in i beräkningen.
Var skulle man få mat till alla dessa extra munnar? Vissa flyttade till Amerika och andra världsdelar för att odlad upp nytt land, andra odlade andra grödor på samma sätt som vi gick ifrån att odla råg, korn och rovor till att odla potatis i Sverige.
What is the Rural-Urban drift?
The social structure of the rural population in the global North is shifting because of demographic change.
In global South: the number of migrants is larger – Rural-Urban drift - ebb and flow - The shifts have become defining features of social change in the South over the past decades. Abandonment of rural areas and explosions in urban populations in receiving areas.
The move abroad of transnational corporations from 1960, the increasing mobility of capital from the 1980s and the concomitant rise in industrial employment, together with development theory and policy that see such modernization (i.e. industrial urban development) as beneficial and desirable, have combined to precipiate this outcome. The process has been aggrevated by the legacy of unequal landholding structures in rural areas, where peasant farmers often exist side by side with large landowners sometimes descended from colonial elites. The commercialization of agriculture and de-agrarization of national economies at the same time has often lead to fewer opportunities for small-scale producers, as larger players have access to the credit and the collateral that are required to purchase the technology in order to compete.
Thus smaller producers have either lost their land to become temporary labourers on large farms (proletarianization) or have migrated to the city (peasantization)
= in other words: rural areas in poorer countries are becoming increasingly less attractive economically and socially and alarge.scale drift to the cities has occured. In some cases this has been coupled with severe environmental declinebecause of over-exploitation, rapid commercialization or climate change.
Severe drought has increased over recent years in sub-Saharan rural zones, leading to rural-urban drift. Under such conditions, political circumstances, including wars, and neoliberal economic policies such as export orientation, have often aggrevated environmental tensions leading to full-scale food shortages and famine.
Problems in rural areas in the South are made all the more significant when one considers that despite rapid relative population loss, the largest absolut rural populations are found in poor countries.
What are some of the characteristics of rural in North vs. South?
Rural areas global north: poverty, deprivation is high and environmental degradation increasing rapidly.
Rural areas global north: social justice and local environmental issues – also here a commodification of the country-side and rural idyll as marketing tool to sell ”countryside” products mean that the rural is increasingly important all across society in richer countries.
I.e. the rural is shifting rapidly.
Vad betyder egentligen “rural”?
Rural is for most what is not the urban city – depends on ”where the person who is asked comes from” ub a geographical and sociocultural sense.
I.e. the imaginaries, together with the realtites of the ”rural” are not homogenous across the globe, varying across time and space in ways that alter how the rural is defined, interacted iwth, inhabited, interpreted and socially constructed.
With globalisation, the economic and environmental shifts that occur in rural areas dont occur in isolation.
50% of world population lives in rural areas. In relative and absolute senses the vast majority of these are in poorer countries, 25.2% in richer countriesand 55.4% in south.
Therefor it could be argued that rural geography, at the global scale, should be principally concerned with issues of development, poverty and inequality in poorer countries.
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Two ways: empirically and conceptually
Empirically: functional approaches including measuring land-use characteristics as well as demographic approcahes that involves such things as populations desnity measures.
Conceptually: social constructs, which have to do with how we imagine the countryside
Using functional definitions assumes that there is a rural/urban dichotomoy and that the rural is defined by what it’s not – that is, not urban.
Rural geografi som ämne har definierat rural som följande:
”Areas which are dominate by extensive land uses such as agriculture or forestry, or by large open spaces of underdeveloped land, which contain small, lower order settlements demonstrating a strong relationship between buildings and extensive landscape, and which are perceived as rural by most residents.”
=as much a state of mind as configureation of function
vad var den agrara revolutionen?
Mot slutet av 1700-talet ägde stora förändringar rum inom jordbruket. Sedan länge hade bönder odlat små tegar. Dessa små tegar slogs samman till större fält. Detta underlättande för bönderna och det blev lättare att plöja stora fält på en gång. Harvar och såmaskiner underlättade det tunga jordbruksarbetet - arbetet blev mer rationellt.
Man införde även växelbruk inom jordbruket. Tidigare så hade en tredjedel av jorden legat i träda för att inte bli utarmad. Men med växeljordbruk så odlade man korn och vete vartannat år och vallväxter, som klöver, ärtor vartannat år. Vallväxterna tillförde fälten kväve från luften. Genom vallväxterna så fick djuren bättre foder och kunde producera mer mat.
Den agrara revolutionen ledde till att produktionen av livsmedel ökade betydligt samt krävde mindre arbetskraft än tidigare.
Den agrara revolutionen var en viktig bakgrund till den industriella revolutionen.
På samma sätt genomfördes i Sverige det så kallade storskiftet runt sekelskiftet 1800, samt det laga skiftet i mitten av 1800-talet. Detta ledde bland annat till att de gamla radbyarna i hög grad försvann, till förmån för enskilt belägna gårdar med sammanhängande jordinnehav.
What were some of the effects of the green revolution?
Ingen enorm befolkningsökning som man trodde under 70-talet. Satsade på forskning på högavkastande grödor, ”mirakelutsäde”, kemisk gödning osv.
Men det ledde till ökad bevattning = försaltning och vattenbrist, Minskad biodiversitet, Mekanisering=arbetslöshet, och färre djur, Utbildningar och instutitioner som gynner män mer än kvinnor, Föroreningar=realtitet på grund av ny teklonogi och politik.
It put many rural societies on a pathway of increasing inequality, because richer farmers were best able to exploit the technologies and once they had captured the benfits, used the returns to buy more land. Ecologically, green revolution varieties were assciated with increased pesticide use (often in poorly regulated contexts – thus leading to heatlth and environmental problems), intensified water extraction and the replacement of multi- for monocropped agricultural systems, thus reducing local agro-biodiversity.
Djurprotein hotat: hälften av världens mat-fisk kommer från 7% av haven vilket sätter stor press på dessa miljöer. Uppföd fisk är mer energi-intensivt.
Föda för djur innebär en omväg för sädet och det krävs 3 kg säden för att producera 1 kg kött – ineffektivt.
The approach known as food sovereignty views the business practices of multinational corporations as a form of neocolonialism. It contends that multinational corporations have the financial resources available to buy up the agricultural resources of impoverished nations, particularly in the tropics. They also have the political clout to convert these resources to the exclusive production of cash crops for sale to industrialized nations outside of the tropics, and in the process to squeeze the poor off of the more productive lands. Under this view subsistence farmers are left to cultivate only lands that are so marginal in terms of productivity as to be of no interest to the multinational corporations. Likewise, food sovereignty holds it to be true that communities should be able to define their own means of production and that food is a basic human right. With several multinational corporations now pushing agricultural technologies on developing countries, technologies that include improved seeds, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides, crop production has become an increasingly analyzed and debated issue. Many communities calling for food sovereignty are protesting the imposition of Western technologies on to their indigenous systems and agency.
What is Urban sprawl?
Urban sprawl or suburban sprawl describes the expansion of human populations away from central urban areas into previously remote and rural areas, often resulting in communities reliant upon heavy automobile usage.
vad innebär gentrifiering?
Gentrification has gained attention over the last 50 years, as sociologists attempt to explain the influx of middle-class people to cities and neighborhoods and the displacement of lower-class working residents. Gentrification occurs when wealthier people buy or rent property in low-income or working class neighborhoods, driving up property values and rent. While it brings money into blighted urban areas, it often comes at the expense of poorer, pre-gentrification residents who cannot afford increased rents and property taxes .
The first urban pioneers in a gentrifying neighborhood may have lower incomes, but possess the cultural capital (e.g., education) characteristic of suburban residents. They are often socially and professionally dominant while economically marginalized. Partially due to their age and low-incomes, these individuals frequently reside in households with roommates and are more tolerant of the perceived evils of the city, such as crime, poor schools, and insufficient public services. Thus, they are willing to move into marginal neighborhoods. When the number of urban pioneers reaches such a critical mass, it attracts business investment and new amenities such as bars, restaurants, and art galleries. Once the urban pioneers and businesses have taken the financial risk out of the community, risk-averse investors and residents may enter the newly gentrified neighborhood. Renewed business attracts more investment capital and new residents, increasing local property values. Ironically, upon full gentrification, the urban pioneers are frequently evicted as rents and taxes rise, and the young, poor professionals can no longer afford to live in the area.
Gentrification is often resisted by those displaced by rising rents . However, while protests have an economic dimension, claims are usually articulated as a loss of culture or dismay over the homogenization and flattening of a formerly diverse neighborhood: gentrification generally increases the proportion of young, white, middle- to upper-income residents.
Demographic
The demographic explanation emphasizes the impact of the baby boomer generation, born after World War II. In the 1970s, this led to a spike in the young adult population, increasing demand for housing. To meet the demand, urban areas had to be “recycled,” or gentrified. The new baby boomer residents departed from the suburban family idea, marrying later and having fewer children; women in the baby boomer generation were the first to enter the workforce in serious numbers. New urban residents were composed of higher, dual-income couples without children, less concerned about space for large families—one of the main draws to the suburbs for their parents. Instead, they were interested in living in cities close to their careers and enjoying the amenities their higher incomes could afford.
Sociocultural
The sociocultural explanation is based on the assumption that values and beliefs influence behavior. It focuses on the changing lifestyles and values of the middle- and upper-classes in the 1970s. At this time, the suburban ideal was falling out of favor; fewer people were moving to suburbs and more were moving back to cities. These first few suburban transplants, or urban pioneers, demonstrated that cities were viable places to live and began developing a type of inner-city chic that was attractive to other baby boomers, which in turn brought an influx of young affluence to inner cities.
Political Economy
Political economic explanations argue new economic or policy incentives contribute to gentrification. In part, the changing political climate of the 1950s and 1960s produced new civil rights legislation, such as anti-discrimination laws in housing and employment and desegregation laws. These policies enabled black families to move out of urban centers and into the suburbs, thus decreasing the availability of suburban land, while integrationist policies encouraged white movement into traditionally black urban areas.
An alternative explanation suggests that developers and government encouraged gentrification with an eye toward profit. Gentrification may be driven by governments hoping to raise property values and increase revenue from taxes. It may be the result of fluctuating relationships between capital investments and the production of urban space. During the two decades following World War II, low rents in the city’s periphery encouraged suburban development; as capital investment moved to suburbs, inner-city property values fell. Developers were able to see that they could purchase the devalued urban land, redevelop the properties, and turn a profit.
Världens landsbygder har genomgått stora förändringar under framförallt senare delen av 1900-talet. Redogör för två av de fyra stora förändringar som kursboken beskriver utifrån de skillnader och likheter som finns kring dessa förändringar i det som boken kallar the global north och the global south.
- Modernization (urbanization & industralization)
- Neoliberalism
- Globalization
- Urbanization: counter-urbanization in some countries in North, very fast in South
- Den gröna revolutionen startades efter WW2 då födelsetalen var mycket höga och fler munnar behövde mättas. Genmodifiering skapade större skördar, jrodbruket och fisket intensifierades – detta hade konsekvenser på naturen och människan.
Rural development generally refers to the process of improving the quality of life and economic well-being of people living in relatively isolated and sparsely populated areas. Rural development has traditionally centered on the exploitation of land-intensive natural resources such as agriculture and forestry. However, changes in global production networks and increased urbanization have changed the character of rural areas. Increasingly tourism, niche manufacturers, and recreation have replaced resource extraction and agriculture as dominant economic drivers. The need for rural communities to approach development from a wider perspective has created more focus on a broad range of development goals rather than merely creating incentive for agricultural or resource based businesses. Education, entrepreneurship, physical infrastructure, and social infrastructure all play an important role in developing rural regions.[3] Rural development is also characterized by its emphasis on locally produced economic development strategies.[4] In contrast to urban regions, which have many similarities, rural areas are highly distinctive from one another. For this reason there are a large variety of rural development approaches used globally.
Dynamic rural policies
Internal colonialism
Multifunctionality
Dynamic rural policies
In Northern countries rural areas have traditionally been over-represented in parliamentary politics, owing in part to the inhereted importance of the landed elite in national affairs of state as well as the desire of some democratic governments to escape accusations of urban bias. This has created many political parties, interest groups, alliances, movements from the country side.
Representation of the rural for political gain are not just made from within the countryside itself: arguments about rural identity are sometimes invoked in order the make broader political gains. Countries in the European union, especially France have used arguments concerning the importance of ”rurality” to make the case for the maintenance of subsidies for agriculture, claiming that suck funds help sustain the lifestyles and landscapes that make a broader contribution to the character of the European countryside.
More recently, more European governments have couched this argument in terms of the protection of the ”multifunctionality” of the countryside, that is to say, sustaining agriculture has a positive knock-on effects in other areas (such as environmental preservation) that others in broader society also values.
Some in the South see this as a form of protectionism, allowing the continuance of subsidized agriculture in richer countries. At the same time that such support persists, global institutions insist on the adoption of the free-market, non-subsidized, neoliberal policies in poorer countries, a situation which discriminates against millions of rural inhabitants.
In the South the practice of modernist development has often been described as ”urban biased” – the persistent neglect of rural development initiatives in favoir of industrial urban policy has been written about widely is Latin America and Africa.
Internal colonialism: effective control of resources remains in urban areas even though they are produced in rural areas. Rural dwellers in the South have to endure the double impact of often over-centralized and urban-biased governments, and the economic control of the large corporations based in capital cities, or even outside the boarders if the country itself.
