Robert Service - History of 20th Century Russia Flashcards
By how much did manufacturing and mining output rise annually in the last decade of the 19th century?
8%
By how much did manufacturing and mining output rise annually between 1907-WWI?
6%
Was the Tsars’ industry neglectful of market goods for popular consumption?
No - the Soviets was
How did Russia compete compared to other countries in grain export?
Russia was the worlds greatest grain exporter
How much government interference was there in rural life in Tsarist times?
Little interference in rural affairs as long as peasants complied with the states demand of taxes and conscripts
How much land were peasants left with after emancipation?
13% less
How many workers were there in large-scale industry by 1913?
2.4 million
Were workers allowed to form TUs in Tsarist times?
Not until 1906
By 1916 how many households in European parts of the Empire had broken away from the commune to set up consolidated farms?
1/10
How did NII look weak due to not protecting Serbs?
- Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina - everyone knew there had been a diplomatic defeat due to the newspaper and Duma
- Didn’t back Serbia when they declared war on the Ottomans
Why did Russia’s ruling circles want a short, victorious war? (WWI)
Though this would bring society together
What effect did WWI have on the Romanov empire?
Shattered it and made it possible for Bolshevik seizure of power
How many men had been conscripted by the end of 1916?
14m, mainly peasants (= no change to conscript methods)
By how much did factory and mining work force rise by in the first 3 years of WWI?
40%
What were Russia’s war aims in WWI?
Defensive and expansionist
What was the secret treaties that NII signed with Britain and France?
Expansionist policies
Why did these secret treaties have to be kept confidential?
4th Duma may have not supported the war
- socialist parties were already classing the war as ‘imperialist’
How much less was agricultural output in 1916 compared to the 1909-1913 level?
10% below the record annual level in 1909-1913 (not hard for NEP to beat)
Why did peasants have little incentive to sell grain in 1916?
Depreciation of currency + shortage of industrial goods
What was the output of large enterprises in 1916 compared to 1913?
20% higher than 1913 BUT only from factories producing weapons
How did NII treat the leaders of the Duma?
With disdain = gradual alienation
What happened within the Council of the United Gentry in 1916?
Were reconsidering its loyalty to the Tsar
What happened to small and medium firms across Russia after 1914?
Output was decreasing and many went into liquidation
Why was there a shortage of farm labour in 1917?
Conscription
How much were workers getting paid by 1917?
15-20% less than before the war
When did the ‘general strike’ begin in Petrograd?
24th Feb 1917
What radical reforms did the PG introduce?
- Universal and unconditional civil freedoms e.g. opinion, faith etc
- Elections promised for CA
- All adults over 21, including females, were able to vote = wartime Russia freer than another country even at peace
How was the PG not pursing a defensive policy?
The Kadets saw nothing wrong with the expansions aims agreed by NII and B+F
Why did the Mensheviks and SRs allow the PG to form?
Thought the country needed a ‘bourgeois government’ for the foreseeable future
What did people like about the PG?
The fact that they could voice their opinion without the Okhrana
Why did many politicians, generals and businessmen not want a return to monarchy?
The thought the state would become a republic
How did Russians respond to slogans such as workers control, bread land etc?
Positively - similar to words used by the Bolsheviks = appealing to the peoples interests
Why was the party divided when Lenin returned on 3rd April 1917?
Many Bolsheviks were eager to support a policy of opposition to the PG while many wanted to provide support
During the PG who did Stalin and Kamenenev want to co-operate with?
The Mensheviks
What was Lenin’s April Thesis?
Called on the Bolsheviks to build up majorities in the soviets and other mass organisations to expedite the transfer of power to them
What did other Bolsheviks think about the April Thesis?
None thought the transition to socialism might be inaugurated instantly after the monarch’s removal
What happened to those who disliked the April Thesis?
They either joined the Menshevik party or abandoned political involvement
How many Bolsheviks were from w/c backgrounds?
3/5
What did Prince Lvov and War Minister Kerensky want to prove to Russia’s allies?
Their usefulness and wanted to gain support at home through military success
When did Lvov resign in favour of Kerensky?
June 1917
What did Kerensky see for the future of the PG?
Though socialists should take a majority of ministerial positions (had his own party of SRs)
How did Kerensky treat the Mensheviks and SRs?
Placed no obstacles in front of them
What did Kerensky aim for agriculture?
To secure a more regular supply of food from the countryside
Why did peasant refuse to release their stocks under the PG?
Until there was a stable currency and more industrial products
How did Kerensky respond to the peasants demands?
Initially refused to increase the price for their products
BUT on 27th August licensed a doubling of prices offered for wheat
Before Kerensky upped the price for wheat how much grain was the state procuring?
Only 56% of grain procured in the same month in the previous year
Why did Russian soldiers loose the will to fight during the PG era?
Began to suspect that the PG had expansionist aims
Why were the m/c and u/c annoyed at Kerensky?
Due to him maintaining support among the Mensheviks and SRs - regarded the Kadets as also weak BUT other anti-socialist organisations were weaker still
How did Military commanders feel about Kerensky?
Began to loose respect for him (Just like with NII)
What did the soldiers, peasants and workers want from the PG?
Soldiers - peace
Workers - job security and higher wages
Peasants - land
How could Kerensky satisfy the wishes of the population?
By withdrawing from the war
What did Lenin claim about Kerensky?
That he was planning to hand Petrograd over to the Germans
What slogan gained appeal among the w/c?
‘workers control’ = shows appeal of the Bolsheviks
How many cases of peasant seizures of gentry land were there in October and July?
October = 237 July = 116
How many destructive raid were there on gentry land in October?
144
What did the miners at Don Basin do?
Took managers captive
What effect did the version of ‘workers control’ have on the PG?
Had massive interference with capitalists practices
What happened at the Democratic Conference in September?
It was too divided to be able to supply a census of support for Kerensky
What was Lenin urging by September?
For the Bolsheviks to take control
- Central committee rejected his advice and they saw that popular support was insufficient for an uprising
What did Trotsky and other Bolsheviks believe about the time the revolution should take place?
Should coincide with the opening of the Second All-Russia Congress of Soviet Worker’s and Solider’s Deputies = appear not as a coup but as a transfer of ‘all power to the Soviets’
What had the left-wing faction of the Mensheviks been calling for since July?
For an all-socialist coalition committed to radical social reform
When did the left-wing SRs break from their party and formed a separate one?
October = Lenin willing to deal with these SRs and Mensheviks
What did Kamenev and Zinoviev do about Lenin’s plan?
They were appalled by Lenin’s uprising that they informed the press of his plan
What did Lenin call for once he gained power?
An immediate end to WWI and for w/c people across Europe to establish their own socialist administrations
What did Lenin do with the peasants and workers once he gained power?
Transfered land to the peasants and workers control imposed on factories
What did Lenin announce giving to the non-Russian people once he gained power?
National self-determination
What did the Bolsheviks say the cause of WWI was?
Capitalism and said there would be further global struggles until capitalism was ended
What did socialists around the world and Bolsheviks think about central state planning?
Though that central economic planning was crucial to the creation of a farer society - seen throughout the Soviet era
How did Lenin want to rule?
Advocated dictatorship, class-based discrimination = caused revulsion among many socialists
What did Lenin say about ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’?
Claimed this was an intermediate stage that communism required - dictatorship would then wither out to create communism
What did other socialists think about ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’?
That it would not wither out but would become more oppressive
Why was Lenin impatient for the revolution?
Because he anticipated that the Bolsheviks would not have a clear majority at the Congress of Soviets - gained only 300/670 delegates
What did the Mensheviks and SRs want with the Bolsheviks
An exclusive socialist coalition - Lenin could think of nothing worse
Why did Lenin want the Military-Revolutinarty Committee to grab power hours before the Congress?
To annoy the Mensheviks and SRs enough to prevent them from forcing a coalition
What did the other socialists describe the revolution as?
A coup détat - stormed out of the hall giving Bolsheviks a clear majority
What did the Railwaymen’s Union do?
Threatened to go on strike until a coalition was formed
What did the Cossack continent loyal to Kerensky do?
Moved on Petrograd - were defeated and the strike petered out
What was the Decree on Peace?
26th October 1917:
plea to all governments and to ‘all the warring peoples’ to bring about a ‘just, democratic pease’ = proposed an immediate withdrawal from the war
How did Lenin describe WWI?
Said it was the ‘greatest crime against humanity’
What was the Land Decree?
Said all land belongs to all peasants
When was the 8 hour day confirmed?
29th October
What was introduced on 14th November 1917?
A code on workers’ control in factories and mines
What was the Decree on Press?
26th October 1917:
could close down any newspapers publishing anti-Bolshevik material
What did Lenin offer to Finland?
Complete independence + offered a similar proposal for German occupied Poland
= very different to Emprie goals of the Tsars BUT ideological motive to encourage Bolshevik governments
What did Lenin want to do with the rest of the empire?
Retain it
What was new for many Bolsheviks?
Public life - they were used to political theorising
What influence did the Land Decree have on peasants?
Had a large impact on their opinion - became known as Lenin’s decree
How did Bolsheviks come to power locally?
By means of local resources
What happened with the transfer of power in Moscow?
The Sovnarkom sent armed units but elsewhere this was typically unnecessary
What was the Constituent Assembly in November?
First free parliamentary elections in the countries history
Why did the Bolsheviks go ahead with the CA?
Because their propaganda played heavily upon the necessity of a democratically chosen government
How many votes did the Bolsheviks and the SRs gain in the CA?
Bolsheviks got 1/4 while the SRs got 37%
What was the reaction of the Sovnarkom to the CA results?
Reacted ruthlessly - if people failed to perceive where their best interest lay, then they had to be protected against themselves
When did the CA meet?
5th January 1918
What happened at the CA?
Deputies for the Assembly were told to leave and a demonstration that was held in support of the CA was fired upon by Sovnarkom troops
- Bolsheviks declared the CA dissolved the next day
What did German negotiators at Brest-Litovsk argue the Sovnarkom should do?
Allow national self-determinism to the borderlands and cease sovereignty over them
What did Central powers in Russia claim about the war in January 1918?
That unless a separate peace was quickly signed on the Eastern front they would be overrun
What did Lenin tell the party regarding BL?
That they had no option but to accept the German terms
What was Trotsky policy which opposed BL?
‘neither war nor peace’ - was temporarily adopted as the party rejected Lenin’s advice
When and why did the central committee accept Lenin’s policy of accept BL?
Germans were not fooled by Trotsky policy and took Dvinsk 18th Feb
When was the treaty of BL signed?
3rd March
What effects did BL have on the USSR?
- It was disjoined from Ukraine, Belorussia and the Baltic region
- Hald the grain, coal, iron and human population of the former Russian Empire was lost
What was the harvest of summer 1917 like?
Was 13% below the average for half a decade before WWI
How did the output of large and medium sized factories fall in 1918?
Fell to 1/3 of what it was in 1913
How could the Bolsheviks explain the results of the CA?
Because the candidate list did not differentiate between the Left SRs and the SRs
How were central powers and the allies hiding the growth of anti-war sentiment?
By censoring newspapers
What happened to Bolshevik popularity after the CA
Declined drastically in 1918
What did the w/c want with socialist parties?
A coalition of all socialist parties
What was the interest of the w/c like in politics?
Lack of interest for the soviets and other mass organisations after the Romanov downfall
Why were there splits in the central committee in November 1917 and March 1918?
Over war vs peace
Why did the Bolsheviks have difficulty in the borderlands?
The regime was regarded as illegitimate
What did Lenin propose at the 3rd Congress of Soviets?
The formation of the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic (RSFSR)
What did Lenin emphasis about the RSFSR?
That all peoples and territories of the former Empire were welcomed on equal terms = v. different to Tsars (Russification)
What did the Bolsheviks aim to do at home and Europe?
Wanted to remake politics in Europe and transform the Russian empire into a multi-national socialist state of free and equal nations
Due to the Land Decree how much land did peasants gain in central regions and Ukraine?
Central regions = an area 1/4 bigger than before 1917
Ukraine = 3/4 bigger
How was the revolution affecting rural relationships in village?
Women began to put themselves forward in decision making
How did workers feel after the Land Decree?
They relished their new status - palaces etc were seized from the rich and turned into blasts for W/C families
After the revolution what happened to the remaining owners of enterprises?
Fled south determined to take their financial assets with them
What did the Factory-workshop committees do?
Unlocked closed premises and informed the Sovnakom hat they were ‘nationalised’ - state gained enterprises at a faster rate than approved by official policy
What did the Movement Proletarian Culture (Proletkult) do?
Sought to facilitate education and cultural self-development of workers
What was Lenin’s opinion on the Proletkult?
Thought it might be difficult for the party to regulate
- was seeking to limit the rights of workers in 1918 and in 1920 he moved against the Proletkult
Who tried to form counter revolutionary groups?
A few upper class individuals
Who was the right to vote withdrawn from?
All citizens who hired labour in pursuit of profit, who gained income from financial investment or were in private business
What did Lenin want clearly understood about the RSFSR?
That is was going to be a class dictatorship
When and what was the Decree on the Separation of the Church from the State?
Forbade the teaching of religion in schools and the church could own no property
How were the structures of administration falling apart in 1918?
- Policies created by Sovnarkom were not enforced by the lower soviets if local Bolsheviks objected
- TUs made their own supreme bodies
- Lack of respect for hierarchy inside the party
- Country lacked all system of order
What did the Bolsheviks agree would be the next big step in politics and economics around the world?
The dictatorship of the proletariat, gathering of society into larger organisational units and the dissemination of Marxism
What were Lenin’s views on Industrialisation and Collectivisation?
Wanted a cautious pace - Bukharin wanted the opposite
What was the Sovnarkom (Council of People’s Commissars)?
Created shortly after October revolution to lay the foundations to form Russia into the Soviet Union:
- the policy forming and directing part of the Soviet government.
- became the council of ministers in 1946
What was the Politburo?
The policy forming and directing part of the Party
Why did the Bolsheviks want the help of the intelligentsia?
To counter anti-Bolshevik opinion - but they were not sympathetic to Bolshevism
How did the teachers behave?
More or less like the Bolsheviks wanted - material benefits offered to those who wanted to comply
How did intellectuals feel about the Decree on the Press?
Saw it as a preliminary step towards a cultural clampdown
Due to Russian industry’s backwardness what did Lenin argue was required?
Suggest small and medium sized enterprises should be exempt from nationalisation and formed into large capitalist syndicates responsible for each area of industry = capitalism still had a role to play in the countries economic development
How did the party feel about Lenin’s pro-capitalist initiative?
Caused outcry on the left BUT Lenin argued once capitalism had ceased to be useful it would be eradicated
What happened to talented and loyal workers under Lenin?
They were invited to become rulers in their own dictatorship
- social background counted heavily as a qualification for promotion
Why was a predominantly ‘proletarian’ administration impossible?
Due to the low numbers of industrial workers
How did the Soviet state and Tsars differ in terms of the countries economic and social affairs?
The soviets intrude in greater depth than the Tsars
What did Lenin and his colleagues assume the reason was for the Sovnarkom failing to obtain its desired political and economic results?
That the cause was the weakness of hierarchical supervision
What was the republic like around the country in mid 1918?
-Was not yet one party or one ideological state
- chaos in all institutions
- Soviet order was extremely disorderly for a great deal of the time
BUT movement towards a centralised, ideocratic dictatorship of a single party had begun
What was War Communism?
Introduced in May 1918 = requisitioning of grain turned into a general system
Why did Trotsky join the Bolsheviks?
He was horrified that the Mensheviks were collaborating with the PG
What did Trotsky encourage imperial army officers to do?
Join the Reds = disliked by Stalin
When was the German army defeated in the Civil War and what affect did this have?
9 November 1918 = Treaty of BL regarded as obsolete
What was the Red Terror?
A response to the attempt on Lenin’s life:
- 13,000 prisoners killed by the Cheka but other estimates put the figure at 300,000
How did War Communism work?
territory under Soviet control was divided into provinces and sub-divided into districts, and quotas of grain were assigned to each of them
How much state procurement of grain was there in 1918-19 compared to 1917-18?
The amount nearly quadrupled
When were all large factories and mines owned by the government?
1919
What was peasant and worker discipline like in the Civil War?
workers: despite more severe legislation was poor
peasants: kept their crops for trade with other peasants whenever possible
When were the Politburo and Orgburo introduced?
January 1919
What did the Politburo do?
Decided politics, economics, war and international relations
What did the Orgburo do?
Handled internal party administration
What was the People’s Commissariat for Nationalities (Narkomnats)?
Headed by Stalin - to realise the official commitments to native-lanauges schools and cultural autonomy
- All Russians were encouraged to exercise their freedom
Why did the Bolsheviks appease non-Russians?
Needed to win support in non-Russian borderlands to create several Soviet republics
How did the Red Army counteract the good done by the Narkomnats?
They were ill-disiplined and rampaged = often committed butchery against religious leaders so were disliked by many
How did the Allies participate in the Civil War?
They provided money and guns to the Whites but never seriously undertook any conquest
When did the Supreme Allied Court lift the blockade on the USSR?
January 1920
How many deserted were there estimated to be by the end of 1919?
1m
How many people died due to malnutrition and disease in 1918-20?
8m
When were there hints that the Kronstadt sailors were loosing support for the Bolsheviks?
Mid 1920
In 1920 what did Trotsky argue grain requisitioning should be replaced by?
A tax-in-kind that would be fixed at a lower level of procurement
What did Lenin suggest about richer peasant households in December 1920?
Urged that they should be rewarded for any additional gains in agriculture productivity
What did Trotsky propose about unions in November 1920?
That they should be turned into agencies of the state - strikes banned, wage increases would be forgone
What happened after the civil war?
The soviet economy turned towards catastrophe - growing number of the population turned against the victors
By 1921 what was nationalised?
Industry, banking, transport and foreign trade
- agriculture and domestic trade were subject to heavy state regulation
How did people feel about war time policies?
Many were unwilling to tolerate them much longer
What happened to factory output during the civil war?
Most industrial enterprises ceased production:
- in 1920 was 86% lower than in 1913
What was the grain harvest of 1920 like?
3/5s of annual average for half a decade before WWI
How did Lenin believe he could stop peasant uprising in 1920?
Believed force alone would not be enough and had to offer economic relaxations
How was tax-in-kind going to bet set in 1920?
At a much lower level than the grain-requisitioning quotas
When was Kronstadt mutiny and what did they demand?
15 March 1921 - demanded a multi-party democracy
What did the 10th Party Conference 1921 allow?
- re-legalised small scale manufacturing
- peasants obtained permission to trade anywhere
- middle men allowed to operate
- private retail shops reopened
When was rationing abolished?
November 1921
What happened to state enterprises in August 1921?
Reorganised into large ‘trusts’ responsible for each manufacturing and mining subsector
What did the 11th Party Congress allow?
Peasant households to hire labour and rent land
What had the Red Army done by March 1921?
Restored the boundaries of the Russia empire =
Nationalists thought the Bolsheviks might take up Russia’s geo-political interests and abandon their communist ideas
What did the Bolsheviks claim the purpose of the revolution was?
To established a multi-national state wherein each national or ethnic group would be free from oppression by any other
What did Stalin head in 1921?
The People’s Commissariat for Nationalities
What did Lenin want to do with the RSFSR?
Federate with other Soviet republics in a USSR
What did Stalin want to do with the RSFSR?
To turn Soviet republics into autonomous republics within the RSFSR = no independence
What did Stalin suggest about language in 1921?
That all verbal communication had to occur in a comprehensible language = Russification?
When did the Cheka become the OGPU?
1923
When did Lenin win his campaign to create the USSR?
September 1922
When did national decorations become a basic aspect of government policy?
1939-40 but the precedent had been set under Lenin
Under Lenin what happened to the traditions of Russia?
They were ridiculed if they did not fit Bolshevism
Why did Lenin execute several Bishops in 1922?
Claimed they refused to sell their treasures to help famine relief
What happened as the bourgeoisie emigrated?
The Politburo picked on whichever suspected ‘Class enemies’ remained
Who did the Soviet authorities deport in spring 1922?
Dozens of Russia writers and scholars = taught the intelligenca that no criticism of the regime would be tolerated
When did the Politburo reintroduce censorship?
June 1922
- thorough the agency of a Main Administration for Affairs of Literature and Publishing Houses
What did Mayakovsky write?
Eulogies for the factory, 20th Century machinery and Marxism-Leninsm
What did Yesenin write?
Rhapsodies to the virtues of the peasantry
By how much did party membership rise from 1921-30 due to campaigns to recruit workers?
625,000 to 1,678,000
What did the Bolshevik leaders strive to do which was very different to the Tsars?
Identify themselves with ordinary people
What happened to those interested in fine clothes, furniture etc?
Were treated as reactionary
What did spokesmen of the party urge women and children to do under Lenin?
Wives to refuse to give obedience to husbands and children to challenge authority of their parents
What were the divorce and abortion laws under Lenin?
Were available on demand
When were wages raised to the amount they were before 1914?
late 1920s
How often were strikes under the NEP?
Frequent
What did the policy of favouring skilled workers for promotion to administrative posts in politics and industry do?
Removed many people who might have made the labour movement for troublesome
What happened to health care and unemployment benefit under the NEP?
Were increased
What was different about the NEP to previous polices?
It was a capitalism different to any seen before in Russia or the external world
What did Lenin insist about the Civil code?
That it should enable the authorities to use sanctions including even terror
What reduced the likelyhood of w/c revolting under the NEP?
- Authorities restricted the work-force from moving to job to job
- Mangers bribed their best men and women ti stay by providing higher wages
How did the NEP effect the peasants?
Temporarily gave the villages back
How was the USSR backwards under the NEP?
Was still a predominantly agrarian country with poor facilities in transport, communication and administration
What was the Nomenklatura?
Created in 1923 - a list of about 5,500 designated party and governmental posts for promotion by the central party bodies
What had the NEP done to the regime?
Saved it from destruction but had introduced its own instabilities
What was there a resurgence of under the NEP?
Nationalists, regionalists and religious aspirations
How did Lenin argue that NEP offered space for economic advance?
Argued it was raise the country’s education level, improve its administration, renovate the economy and spread the doctrines of communism
What did Bolshevik leaders resent and what were they embarrassed about in 1923?
- Resented the corrupt and inefficient administration they headed
- Embarrassed they had not eliminated the poverty in towns and villages
What was the aim of Bolshevik leaders in 1923?
- Wanted to accelerate educational expansion and indoctrinate the w/c with their ideas
- Wanted an industrial society that was technologically advanced
Under the NEP what did Lenin want to remain in Sovnarkom’s hands?
Large-scale industry, banking and foreign trade
What did Trotsky urge should increase under the NEP?
Should be an increase in the proportion of investment on industry - state planning committee should draw up a single plan for all sectors of the economy
When was Lenin’s first major stroke?
May 1922 = influence on politics diminished
When did Lenin create his political testament?
December 1922 = to be presented at the next PC
What did Lenin argue would prevent a split in the Politburo?
An influx of ordinary factory workers
How did Stalin suggest homage to Lenin should be rendered?
By means of mass enrolment of workers into the party
What did Trotsky want after Lenin’s death?
To expand state planning, accelerate industrialisation and create a revolution in Europe
What did Zinoviev object to?
The indulgence shown to richer peasants
Why did Zinoviev and Kamenev join up with Stalin?
To prevent Trotsky succeeding Lenin
What did the levels of agricultural output in 1922 allow the Politburo to do?
Resume the export of grain
Who created the platform of 46 and when?
In October 1923 by Preobrazhenski and others
What did the platform of 46 involve?
Criticised the Politburo and demanded for an increase in state economic planning and internal party democracy
What 3 things did Z, K and S claim about Trotsky?
- had been an anti-leninist since 1903
- argued his proposal for rapid industrialisation would involve a fiscal bias against the peasantry
- in 1924 argued he wanted to destroy the NEP
What was Bukharin’s view on bolshevik ideology towards private property?
Wanted it to be temporarily abandoned
What did Zinoviev do in Germany in November 1923?
Tried to make the communist party in Germany seize power = sat uncomfortably with Stalin who wanted to concentrate on building socialism in one country
Who did Bukharin and Zinoviev want to negotiate with?
Western powers - after signing trade treaties with the UK and other states in 1921
What was the Rapallo Treaty?
German military reconstruction by setting up armament factories and military training facilities in the USSR
What were the USSRs exports like in 1926-27?
Were 1/3 in volume of what they were in 1913
Who gave de jure to the USSR in 1924?
The UK when the Labour party won
What changes were made in April 1925?
Lowered the burden of food tax to diminish fiscal discriminations against better off peasants and legalised hired labour + leasing of land
What did the United Opposition claim about Stalin and Bukharin?
That they had surrounded entirely to the peasants
When was Trotsky removed from the People’s Commissar for Military Affairs and when did he loose his Politburo seat?
January 1925 and lost seat in December
How was the United Oppositions access to the media reduced?
Prolific writers such as T, K and Z had their material rejected for publication in Pravda
When was Zinoviev sacked as Leningrad Soviet chairman?
January 1926
When were Z and K removed from the Politburo?
July 1926
When did the central committee expel T, Z and K?
November 1927
What was NEP showing by 1927?
That it was able to restore and develop industry
How did crops change in 1927?
Emphasis taken off cereal crops (90% of crops under NII) onto sugar beet, potatoes and cotton
