Reverse Cards Ch 1-6 Flashcards
-describe
-explain
-predict
-influence
What are the different types of research goals? (4)
-any characteristic that varies
What is a variable defined as?
-descriptive methods and experiments
What are the two ways researchers study development?
-case studies, naturalistic observations, surveys
What are the three types of descriptive methods?
-the variables go up or down together
What does a positive correlation mean?
-as one variable goes up the other variable goes down
What does a negative correlation mean?
-cross-sectional study
-studies where members of naturally occurring groups are compared, like you can’t randomly assign gender so that would be a quasi experiment
What is a quasi-experimental design? (2)
-group of 7, 9 and 12 year olds picked from schools and studied
-age-related differences
What is a cross-sectional design? Use age as an example. What are you studying? (2)
-when the effect seen in the results is due to the experience of a cohort in your study (they lived through a famine for example)
What is a cohort effect?
-studying the same people over a period of time
What is a longitudinal design?
-improvements due to exposure to something
What are practice effects?
-a combination of a longitudinal and cross-sectional design where you follow more than one group over time
What is a sequential design?
-detailed description of a single culture or context based on observation
What is an ethnography?
-biology and evolutionary
-psychoanalytic
-learning
-cognitive
-systems
What are the five theories we will be discussing in this chapter? (5)
-genetic and epigenetic factors interact with the environment to shape us
What is the biological or evolutionary theories main ideas?
-molecular compound that instructs the genome to turn off and on genes
What is the epigenome?
-personaltiy and behaviours are shaped by interacting or dynamic underlying forces (like the unconscious)
What are psychoanalytic theories?
-Id, ego and superego
What are the 3 parts of Freud’s theory on personality?
-contains the libido, largely unconscious and present at birth
What is the id?
-operates according to what is realistic and develops due to learning in the first few years
What is the ego?
-moral guide or conscience and develops around age 6
What is the superego?
-lifespan theory with 8 psychosocial stages
What is Erikson’s psychosocial theory?
-a crisis to resolve resulting in pairing opposing possibilities
What does each psychosocial stage in Eriksons theory have?
-positive aspects of development, consciousness and free will
What does the humanistic perspective focus on?
-in Maslow’s hierarchy these are drives to maintain physical and emotional balance
What are deficiency motives?
-drives for growth and to fulfill your potential
What are being motives in Maslow’s hierarchy?
-overcome conditions of worth put on us by the people in our lives
-example: I need to be a straight A student in order for my parents to love me
What did Rogers (humanistic) believe? Example. (2)
-how experiences in the environment shape the child
-through classical or operant conditioning
What does learning theories focus on (behaviourism)? What would be an example of this? (2)
You give a child a piece of candy every time they clean their room. (increases behaviour)
What is an example of positive reinforcement?
The seatbelt alarm turns off when you buckle your seatbelt up. (increases behaviour)
What is an example of a negative reinforcement?
Spraying your cat with water when they jump on the counter (decreasing behaviour)
What is an example of positive punishment?
A teenager stays out past curfew, so their parents take away their car keys for a week. (decreasing behaviour)
What is an example of negative punishment?
-Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory
-information processing theory
-Vygotskys sociocultural theory
-Bandura’s social cognitive theory
What are the four theories under the cognitive theories umbrella? (4)
-how does thinking develop and has 4 stages of development, water in smaller cup
What does Piaget’s theory focus on?
-they use the computer as a model and this is where memory is broken down into encoding, storage and retrieval
What does the information-processing theory focus on?
-developing cognitive skills are guided by social interactions (scaffolding)
What does Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory focus on?
-observational learning through modelling and reciprocal determinism
What does Bandura’s social cognitive theory focus on?
-development exists within a whole bunch of factors, including personal and external (it cannot be understood within isolation) and changes in any tiny aspect of the system will influence our development
What does systems theory focus on?
-macrosystem, ecosystem, microsystem, mesosystem, individual context
What are some terms in Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory?
-synaptogenesis is the creation of synapses and synaptic pruning makes the brain more efficient
What is the purpose of synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning?
-rapid myelination during the first two years
-an explanation for developmental changes
What happens to myelin’s in the first 2 years? What does it help explain? (2)
-they help the infant survive, things like sucking
Rooting reflex: infant turns its head toward a touch on the cheekW
What are adaptive reflexes? What is a type of adaptive reflexes? (2)
-controlled by primitive parts of the brain and disappear in infancy
What are primitive reflexes?
-moro startle and baninski
What are two types of primitive reflexes?
-infant arches and throws its arms and legs out and brings them back in
What is the moro startle reflex?
-if the sole of the foot is stroked, the toes fan out
What is the babinski reflex?
-infants move through different states of consciousness, but sleep a lot of the time
Describe sleep and wakefulness in infants,.
-baby’s have different cries for different needs and prompt attention to crying in the first 3 months is related to less crying later
Discuss crying for babies
-inconsolable bouts of crying for more than 3 hours a day
What is colic?
-brain development and changes in other body systems (like bones increasing in size etc)
What does the acquisition of motor skills depend on?
-locomotor skills
-non-locomotor skills
-manipulative skills
What are the three types of motor skills discussed for infants? (3)
-getting around, crawling
What are locomotor skills?
-controlling the body such as head movements
What are non-locomotor skills?
-use of hands and fingers
What are manipulative skills?
-they are nearly universal, age-related events like walking, being able to move their head
What are developmental milestones?
-all children usually follow the same sequence despite variations in timing (we are seeing maturation, like a biological aspect)
While different babies will reach developmental milestones at different times, what is seen universally across babies?
-vision
-less visual acuity and more trouble with visible tracking, do not see colour very well until 4-5 months
What is a baby’s least developed sense at birth? Discuss this (2)
-how well someone can see details at particular distance
What is visual acuity?
-following moving objects
What is visual tracking?
-there are critical times when an infant needs a specific quality of visual stimulation in order to develop normal perception
Why do infants need visual stimulation early in life?
-when early experience is lacking, visual capability fails to develop normally many years later
What is a sleeper effect when it comes to visual stimulation for infants?
-they hear largely as well as adults do
-touch and taste is also good
How well do infants hear? Touch and taste? (2)
-which of two repeated pictures does a baby look at longer? if the time is uneven, they prefer one
What is the preference technique?
-preference technique
-habituation/dishabituation
-operant conditioning
What are the three different research techniques they use to study infants? (3)
-showing a picture for a little bit of time until the baby gets bored, then showing a picture with a slight change, if the baby doesn’t seem to care then they don’t notice but if they do look at it they seem to care
What is the habituation/dishabituation technique?
-lets say you play a tone and then give them a reward for turning their head, you do it enough. Then if you play a different tone, you can see if the baby can tell the difference between the two tones
What is the operant conditioning technique?
-they initially scan for light-dark contrasts and edges as well as objects moving
Based on the techniques previously discussed for researching baby’s, what have they found for what baby’s like looking at?
Kinetic cues (by 3 months)
-objects move more when they are near
Binocular cues (4 months)
-using cues from two eyes; the closer the object the more the view from each eye differs
Monocular/pictorial cues (5-7 months):
-interposition, one object partially hides another
Describe the three stages discussed for baby’s depth perception. (3)
-yes they can
-it begins to fade at 6 months for unheard sounds though
Can infants discriminate sounds in a language? Describe this. (2)
-yes
Can newborns discriminate their mothers voice from another woman?
-senses work together to form a single perception
What is intermodal perception?
-changes in thinking that occur over time
What is cognitive development?
-qualitative (distinct changes)
-universality (all children go through these)
-invariant (same order for everyone)
-irreversibility (don’t use thinking style from previous stages)
-gradual (change happens slowly, transition period)
What are the components of Piaget’s stage theory? Like the rules for the theory. (5)
-cognitive development occurs in 4 stages
-children play an active role in their own development (child as a scientist)
What two beliefs did Piaget have about his stage theory? (2)
-organized patterns of thought or action used to interpret experience
What is a schema?
-assimilation
-accomdoation
What two things did Piaget propose happens as we respond to the world with schemas? (2)
-using pre-existing schemas to make sense of experience, like seeing a wombat and not knowing what it is
-Adding new information to a folder that already exists without changing the structure of the folder.
What is assimilation? Use the folder example. (2)
-changing previous concepts because of new information, creating a new scheme for wombats
-Creating a new folder or restructuring an old folder because the new information doesn’t quite fit.
What is accommodation? Folder example? (2)
-the ongoing process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to create schemes that fit the environment
What is equilibration?
-sensorimotor period
-birth to 2 years
-move from reflexive beings to active problem solvers
-they learn through their senses and motor actions
-develop object permanence and deferred imitation
Describe stage 1 in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. What is it called and what age are infants during this stage? What describes their development? How do they learn? What do they develop? (5)
-Rudy Please Read Cool Tasty M&Ms
1. Reflexive Schemes: 0-1 month
2. Primary Circular Reactions: 1-4 months
3. Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months)
4. Coordination of secondary themes (8-12 months)
5. Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months)
6. Mental representations (18-24 months)
Describe the 6 substages of the sensorimotor stage. Include what it is called and what age the child is.
-the understanding that objects exist even when they cannot be seen
What is object permanence?
-actions the result of innate reflexes
-out of sight out of mind
-limited imitation
Describe the characteristics of the substage of sensorimotor development called Reflexive Schemes (0-1 months). (3)
-repetitive schemes
-involve the baby’s own own baby (sucking a thumb)
Describe the characteristics of the substage of sensorimotor development called Primary circular reactions (1-4 months). (2)
-trial and error learning with events outside of the baby’s body (kicking a mobile, dropping things on floors)
Describe the characteristics of the substage of sensorimotor development called secondary circular reactions (4-8 months).
-can coordinate schemes in intentional behaviour (means-ends behaviour, crawling to pick up toy)
Describe the characteristics of the substage of sensorimotor development called coordination of secondary schemes (8-12 months)
-curiosity and behavioural variation
-trial and error experimentation and problem-solving
Describe the characteristics of the substage of sensorimotor development called tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months).
-development of use of symbols and mental problem-solving
Describe the characteristics of the substage of sensorimotor development called mental representations (18-24 months).
-where children will look under the wrong blanket after finding the object under blanket A for example
-incomplete object permanence
What is the A not B error? What does it show? (2)
-infants were reinforced for looking under the A blanket so looked under there again
What are alternative explanations for the A not B error?
-a tall carrot passing through a window and they can’t see it and the baby’s look suprised
-she argued that baby’s did have object permenance
What was the carrot study and what did it show? (2)
-habituate babies to an expected event then show them a change and asses their response
What is the violation-of-expectancy method?
-infants understanding of the nature of objects and how they behave
What is an object concept?
-people have found imitation can occur much earlier than Piaget suggested, plus he didn’t discuss categorization, memory or language
-Piaget may have wrongly equated the infant’s lack of physical ability with lack of cognitive understanding
What are other limitations of Piaget’s theory? Why did he do this? (2)
-by 7 months, kids actively use categories to process information, but struggle with hierarchical categorization
Discuss schematic learning in infants.
-infant’s memory is strongly linked to context, example of Rovee-Collier’s experiment where they are tied to a mobile and when they kicked the mobile moved and that when a change in the environment occurred the memory went down
Discuss memory in infants.
-many aspects of infant and toddler development
What do Bayley scales measure?
-habituation and how quickly an infant gets bored after looking at something, as it shows the efficiency of the baby’s perceptual/cognitive system
Discuss intelligence in infancy and what they say might measure that.
-infants learn language through parental/caregiver/teacher reinforcement of word-like sounds and correct grammar
What is a behaviourist’s perspective on infants ability to learn language?
-they have an innate language processor called the language acquisition device which contains the basic grammatical structure of all human language, guides children;s comprehension and production of language
What is a nativist’s perspective on infants ability to learn language?
-infants are biologically prepared to attend to language and social interaction plays a critical role
What is the interactionist’s perspective on infants ability to learn language?
-the simplified, high-pitch and often repetitive speech adults use with infants (like how you talk to a cat)
What is infant-directed speech?
-elaborating a child’s speech in a grammatically correct way (daddy lunch -> yes daddy is eating his lunch)
What is expansion or recasting?
-cooing (1-2 months) ooooo
-babbling (6-7 months) baba
-gestural language (9-10 months) often used to communicate demands
What are the three language milestones for infants? (3)
-infants have a higher comprehension of spoken language then they can speak
What is receptive language?
-the ability to produce sounds, signs or symbols to communicate meaning
What is expressive language?
-combination of gesture/words
-child yells milk and points at fridge
What are holophrases? Example? (2)
-rapid vocabulary growth
What are naming explosion?
-short 2-3 word sentences
-“Want cookie”
What is telegraphic speech? Example? (2)
-the monkey’s preferred the cloth mother, indicating that affection or comfort or contact comfort was more important than food
In Harry Harlow’s experiment on infant rhesus monkey’s, what did he determine?
-physical and emotional comfort from a caregiver
What is contact comfort, as shown in the Harlow experiment?
-the emotional tie to a caregiver experienced by an infant, from which the infant derives security
What is attachment?
-the need to form an attachment relationship is a genetic characteristic of all human beings
What is the main proponent with attachment theory?
-we have an innate predisposition to form an emotional bond with a caregiver
What is the ethological perspective on attachment theory?
-mental representations individuals develop based on their early experience with their caregivers
What are internal models in attachment theory?
-in 1st year
-established by age 5
-affects behavior in future relationships
When does the development of internal models start and become increasingly established by? What does it affect? (3)
-first 2 years
When is the sensitive period for internal models and attachment theory?
-what happens if an infant does not form an attachment
-detached and lack of response to social cues
What did the study of Romanian orphans adopted by Canadian families look at? What did they find? (2)
-a trauma and stressor related condition of early childhood caused by social neglect and maltreatment, evident before age 5
What is reactive attachment disorder defined as in the DSM?
-infants become detached because they learn not to make social signals as they have learned that no one will respond to their signals
What is the social stimulation hypothesis for attachment?
-mutual pattern of attachment behaviors shared by a parent and child
-if an infant cries, the parent holds them
What is synchrony? Example? (2)
- Non focused signaling (0-3 months)
- Focus on one or more figures (3-6 months)
- Secure base behavior (6-24 months)
- Internal model (24+ months)
What are Bowlby’s 4 phases in establishing attachment? (4)
-innate set of behaviors to promote proximity and signal needs
What is non-focused signaling?
-preference for familiar people or things, directs signals to fewer people
What is Bowlby’s second stage which is focus on one or more figures?
-1st true attachment type, typically a primary caregiver and this person is used as a safe base for exploring
What is secure base behavior?
-plays a role in later relationships
What is the internal model stage?
-appear after 1st attachment which is 6-8 months of age and peak around 12-16 months
-stranger anxiety and separation anxiety
When do attachment related fears show up and what are some? (2)
-wary reaction to unfamiliar people
What is stranger anxiety?
-fretful reaction when separated from attachment figure
What is separation anxiety?
-the attachment of infants
What did Mary Ainsworth’s strange situation procedure measure?
-emotional
-tactile
-contingent
What three types of responsiveness are important for children’s attachment? (3)
-very crucial, the primary caregiver must be able and willing to form a bond
What is emotional responsiveness?
-pleasant physical contact during social interactions associated with comfort and safety
What is tactile responsiveness?
-being sensitive to the child’s verbal and nonverbal cues and responding appropriately
What is contingent responsiveness?
-a pattern of responding to people and objects in the environment
What is personality defined as?
-born with predispositions such as activity level that form the foundations of personality
What is temperament defined as?
-activity level
-approach/positive emotionality
-inhibition
-negative emotionality
-effortful control/task persistence
What are the 5 dimensions of temperament? (5)
-people choose experiences on the basis of temperament, they choose compatible experiences
What is niche-picking?
-degree to which an infant’s temperament is adaptable to their environment
What is goodness-of-fit?
-awareness that you are a separate person
What is the subjective self?
-an understanding that we are defined by categories such as big kid or talkative
What is the objective self?
-begins as baby identifies changes in emotional expressions around 2-3 months
What is the emotional self?
