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Psychology > Research methods year 2 > Flashcards

Research methods year 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is correlation?

A

Refers to a mathematical technique which measures the relationship or association between two continuous variables

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2
Q

What is the correlation coefficient? (5)

A
  • A number between -1 and +1 that represents the direction and strength of a relationship between co-variables
  • The closer the coefficient is to 1 (+1 or -1), the stronger the relationship between the co-variables
  • The closer to 0, the weaker the relationship is
  • Value of +1 represents a perfect positive correlation
  • Value of -1 represents a perfect negative correlation
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3
Q

Advantage of correlations

A

Relatively economical - unlike a lab study, there is no need for a controlled environment and can use secondary data. Less time-consuming than experiments

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4
Q

Disadvantage of correlations

A

Extraneous variables - there is no guarantee that additional influences will stay out of the correlational research study

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5
Q

Describe case studies (4)

A
  • A research method that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event
  • Tend to be longitudinal - take place over a long period of time. They may involve gathering data from family and friends of the individual as well as the person themselves
  • Often involve analysis of unusual individuals or events, e.g person with a rare disorder
  • Interviews, observations, questionnaire or a combination. The data collected is mainly qualitative
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6
Q

Advantage of case studies

A

They produce rich, detailed data. Preferred to the more ‘superficial’ forms of data that might be collected. Such detail is likely to increase the validity of the data collected

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7
Q

Disadvantage of case studies

A

Small samples - sample may be one individual/event with unique characteristics. This makes it difficult to make generalisations

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8
Q

What is content analysis?

A

A type of observational technique which involves studying people indirectly, through qualitative data. Qualitative data collected in a range of formats can be used, such as video or audio recordings, or written responses

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9
Q

Describe coding

A

Coding involves the researcher developing categories for the data to be classified. These categories provide a framework to convert qualitative material into quantitative data, which can then be used for further (statistical) analysis

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10
Q

Describe the process of content analysis (5)

A
  • Data is collected - the content that you’re looking at
  • Researcher reads through or examines the data, making themselves familiar with it
  • The researcher identifies coding units
  • The data is analysed by applying the coding units
  • A tally is made of the number of times that a coding unit appears
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11
Q

What is thematic analysis?

A

A technique that helps identify themes throughout qualitative data. A theme is an idea or a notion, and can be explicit (such as stating that you feel depressed) or implicit (for example, using the metaphor of a black cloud for feeling depressed)

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12
Q

Describe the process of thematic analysis (4)

A
  • Familiarise yourself with the data
  • Generate main themes
  • Review themes and identify sub-themes and examples
  • Produce a report
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13
Q

Advantage of content analysis

A

Affordable - a relatively inexpensive methodology as researchers don’t have to travel like in the case of surveys and questionnaires. Most of the data is readily available, so researchers can use it

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14
Q

Disadvantages of content analysis

A

Time-consuming - it involves data collection and exhaustive data analysis

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15
Q

Advantage of thematic analysis

A

The researchers may identify unexpected themes, providing guidelines for future research.

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16
Q

Disadvantage of thematic analysis

A

Time-consuming process

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17
Q

What is reliability?

A

Refers to the ability of the study or test to produce consistent results if or when repeated at a later date

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18
Q

What are the ways of assessing reliability? (2)

A
  • Test-retest
  • Inter-observer
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19
Q

Describe test-retest (2)

A
  • The same test or questionnaire is given to the same person on two or more different occasions
  • The two sets of scores are correlated to see if they are similar, if the correlation shows a strong positive relationship then the test is considered to be reliable
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20
Q

Describe inter-observer reliability (4)

A
  • The extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour
  • Watch the same event and record it individually. They will then share results
  • The observations of the observers are correlated and if the results show a strong positive relationship then the test is considered to be reliable
  • The correlation coefficient should exceed +0.8 for reliability
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21
Q

Improving reliability - questionnaires (2)

A
  • A questionnaire that produces low test-retest reliability may need some items to be deselected or rewritten
  • The researcher may replace some open questions with closed, fixed-choice alternatives which may be less ambiguous
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22
Q

Improving reliability - interviews (2)

A

Use the same interviewer each time. If this is not possible, all interviewers must be trained (e.g. so they avoid questions that are leading or ambiguous

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23
Q

Improving reliability - observations (2)

A
  • Behavioural categories should be operationalised and measurable
  • Categories should not overlap (e.g. ‘hugging’ and ‘cuddling’), all possible behaviours should be included
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24
Q

Improving reliability - experiments

A
  • Standardised procedures - instructions must be the same for all participants in a research study
25
Q

What is validity?

A

The extent to which an observed effect is genuine

26
Q

What is internal validity?

A

Refers to whether the effects observed in an experiment are due to the manipulation of the IV and not some other factor

27
Q

What is external validity?

A

The extent to which you can generalise the findings of a study to other situations, people, settings, and measures

28
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

A type of external validity - the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings and situations

29
Q

What is temporal validity?

A

A type of external validity - the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras

30
Q

What are the two ways of assessing validity?

A
  • Face validity
  • Concurrent validity
31
Q

What is face validity?

A

whether a test appears to measure what it’s supposed to measure

32
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure

33
Q

Improving validity - experiments (2)

A
  • control group - have greater confidence that it was the effect of the IV that has caused the change
  • Standardised procedures and single-blind and double-blind -minimise impact of participant reactivity and investigator effects
34
Q

Improving validity - questionnaires (2)

A
  • Guaranteeing that data will remain anonymous
  • Lie scale - assesses the consistency of a respondent’s response and to control for the effects of social desirability bias
35
Q

Improving validity - observations

A

Behavourial categories that are well-defined, thoroughly operationalised and not ambiguous or overlapping

36
Q

Improving validity - qualitative research

A

Direct quotes from the participant in the research report. It can be further enhanced through triangulation - the use of a number of different sources for evidence

37
Q

What are statistical tests used to determine?

A

Whether a difference or association/correlation found in a particular investigation is statistically significant (i.e. whether the result could have occurred by chance or there is a real effect)

38
Q

What is the criteria for statistical tests? (3)

A
  • Looking for a difference or a correlation/association?
  • Is experimental design related (repeated measures/matched pairs) or unrelated (independent groups)? - in the case of a difference
  • What is the level of measurement?
39
Q

What is nominal data? (3)

A
  • Categorical data
  • Each item can only appear in one category
  • For example, people naming their favourite football team
40
Q

What is ordinal data? (2)

A
  • Data collected on a numerical, ordered scale but intervals are variable, so that a score of 8 is not twice as much as a score of 4
  • E.g. asking someone to rate how much they like psychology on a scale of 1 to 10
41
Q

What is interval data? (2)

A
  • Based on numerical scales that include units of equal, precisely defined size
  • This includes counting observations in an observational study (8 tallies is twice as much as 4 tallies) or any ‘public’ unit of measurement (e.g. time, temperature)
42
Q

If the statistical test is not significant, what is accepted?

A
  • The null hypothesis
  • It states that there is ‘no difference’ or ‘no correlation’ between the conditions
  • The statistical test determines which hypothesis (null or alternative) is ‘true’ and thus we accept and reject
43
Q

The usual level of significance is what number and what does this mean?

A
  • 0.05 or 5%
  • There is a 5% chance that the results of a particular study sample occurred even if there was no real difference in the population (i.e. the null hypothesis is true)
44
Q

What is a type I error?

A

The null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted when the null hypothesis is ‘true’. This is an optimistic error or false positive

45
Q

What is a type II error?

A

The null hypothesis is accepted but the alternative hypothesis is ‘true’. This is a pessimistic error or false negative

46
Q

What makes each error (type I and type II) more likely?

A

Type I error - significance level is too lenient (too high, e.g. 0.1 or 10%)
Type II error - significance level is too stringent (too low, e.g. 0.01 or 1%), as potentially significant values may be missed

47
Q

What are the 6 sections of a psychological report?

A
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Method
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • Referencing
48
Q

What is the abstract?

A

A short summary (about 150-200 words) that includes all the major elements: the aims and hypotheses, method/procedure, results and conclusions

49
Q

What is the introduction? (2)

A
  • Made up of the relevant theories and past studies/research relevant to the research question
  • The research review should follow a logical progression - beginning broadly and becoming more specific until the aims and hypotheses are presented
50
Q

What is the method?

A
  • Describes how the study was conducted. It should be clear and detailed enough for others to replicate - design, sample, apparatus/materials, procedure, ethics (how they were dealt with)
51
Q

What are the results? (3)

A
  • A summary of key findings from the investigation
  • Descriptive statistics - tables, graphs and charts, measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion
  • Inferential statistics - choice of statistical test, calculated and critical values, level of significance and final outcome i.e. which hypothesis was rejected
52
Q

What is the discussion? (4)

A
  • Summary of findings in verbal, rather than statistical, form
  • Relationship of the results to previous research
  • Limitations of the study, plus suggestions of how these might be addressed in a future study
  • Wider real-world implications of the research
53
Q

What are the references?

A

The full details of any journal articles, books and websites that you used in their report

54
Q

Features of science - What is a paradigm?

A

Shared assumptions and methods within a scientific discipline e.g. there is a general consensus among scientists that the earth is round

55
Q

Features of science - What is a paradigm shift?

A

They occur when there is a scientific revolution. A handful of researchers question the accepted paradigm when there is too much contradictory evidence to ignore

56
Q

Features of science - Describe theory construction (3)

A
  • A theory is a set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours
  • Testing a theory depends on being able to make clear and precise statements (hypotheses) in the basis of the theory
  • A hypothesis can then be tested using scientific methods to determine whether it will be supported or refuted
57
Q

Features of science - What is falsifiability? (2)

A
  • The principle that a theory cannot be considered a science unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue
  • Popper distinguished between theories which can be tested and falsified, and what he called ‘pseudosciences’ which can’t be falsified
58
Q

Features of science - What is replicability?

A

The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers

59
Q

Features of science - objectivity and the empirical method

A
  • Not letting own personal biases affect the results of studies
  • Empirical method refers to using observable evidence to draw conclusions and propose theories

Psychology (12 decks)

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