Research methods year 1 Flashcards
What is the aim?
a general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate
What is a hypothesis?
A testable prediction about the variables in a study. It should always contain the IV and the DV
What is a directional hypothesis?
A one-tailed hypothesis that states the direction of the difference or relationship
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
A two-tailed hypothesis that does not predict the direction of the difference or relationship
What is operationalisation
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
What is the independent variable?
The variable that the researcher manipulates and is assumed to have a direct effect on the DV
What is the dependent variable?
The variable that the researcher measures. It is the variable that is affected by the manipulation of the IV
What is an extraneous variable?
Any variable, other than the IV, that may affect the DV if it is not controlled
What are the four types of extraneous variables
Participant variables, situational variables, investigator effects and demand characteristics
What are situational variables?
factors in the environment that can unintentionally affect the results of a study
Give examples of situational variables (7)
heat, noise, distractions, time of day, time of year, place in history, order effects
What are participant variables?
Characteristics of individual participants that might influence the outcome of a study
Give examples of participant variables (10)
Age
Gender
Mood
Ethnicity
Expectations
Intelligence
Personality
Memory
Previous experience
Participant reactivity
Why does research need to be highly controlled
To avoid the effects of extraneous variables
What are confounding variables?
Variables that vary systematically with the IV. Therefore we can’t tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or the confounding variable
What are demand characteristics?
Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation, and change participants’ behaviour
What is the please-U effect and the screw-U effect?
When participants act in a way that they think is expected and over-perform to please the experimenter
When participants deliberately under-perform to sabotage the results of the study
What are investigator effects?
Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (the DV)
What is randomisation?
The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions
controlling situational variables - standardisation
Using exactly the same formalised procedures for all participants in a research study
What are standardised instructions?
A set of instructions that are the same for all participants so as to avoid investigator effects caused by different instructions
what is an experiment?
A controlled situation in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effect on another variable, while the other variables are held constant
What is the independent groups design?
Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition
Advantages of independent groups design (2)
• No order effects - participants are only tested once so can’t practise or become bored/tired. Controls an important CV
• Will not guess aim - participants are only tested once so they are unlikely to guess the research aims. Behaviour may be more ‘natural’ (higher realism)
Disadvantages of independent groups design (2)
• The participants in the two groups are different, acting as EV/CV - If researcher finds a mean difference between the groups on the DV this may be more to do with participant variables than the effects of the IV. Reduces the validity of study
• Less economical - need twice as many participants as repeated measures for the same data. More time spent recruiting, expensive
What is the repeated measures design?
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment
Advantages of repeated measures design (2)
• Participant variables are controlled - The person in both conditions has the same characteristics. This controls an important CV, higher validity.
• Fewer participants - Half the number of participants is needed than in independent groups. Less time spent recruiting participants.
Disadvantages of repeated measures design (2)
• Order effects - participants may do better or worse when doing a similar task twice. Also practice/fatigue effects. Reduces the validity of the results
• Can guess aims - Likely that participants will work out the aim of the study when they experience all conditions of the experiment. May change their behaviour. This may reduce the validity of the results
What is the matched pairs design?
Pairs of participants are first matched on some variables that may affect the DV. Then one member of the pair is assigned to condition A and the other to condition B
Advantages of matched pairs design (2)
• Participant variables are controlled - Participants are matched on a variable that is relevant to the experiment. This enhances the validity of the results
• No order effects - participants are only tested once so no practice or fatigue effects. Enhances the validity of the results
Disadvantages of the matched pairs design (2)
• Matching is not perfect - time-consuming and can’t control all relevant variables. Can’t address all participant variables.
• Need twice as many participants as repeated measures for the same data. More time is spent recruiting, expensive
What is random allocation?
An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other
What are order effects?
A confounding variable arising from the order in which conditions are presented
What is counterbalancing and why is it needed in repeated measures design experiments
An attempt to control for the effects of order: half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other in the opposite order
What participants do at the start of a test could influence how they perform later in the test
Types of experiment - What is a laboratory experiment? (3)
A controlled environment where EVs and CVs can be regulated
Participants go to the researcher
The IV is manipulated and the effect on the DV is recorded
Advantages of laboratory experiments
EVs/CVs can be controlled - this means that the effect of EVs and CVs on the DV can be minimised. Cause and effect between the IV and DV can be demonstrated (high internal validity)
Disadvantages of laboratory experiments (2)
Demand characteristics may be a problem - cues in the experimental situation that invite a particular response from participants. Findings may be explained by these cues rather than the effect of the IV (lower internal validity)
Types of experiment - what is a field experiment?
Conducted in a natural setting
The researcher goes to participants
The IV is manipulated and the effect on the DV is recorded
Advantages of field experiments
More natural environment - Participants are more comfortable and behaviour is more authentic. Results may be more generalised to everyday life
Disadvantages of field experiments
Ethical issues - May not have given consent. Invasion of their privacy
Types of experiment - what is a natural experiment?
An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on a DV they have decided on.
What are the advantages of natural experiments
May be the only practical/ethical option - May be unethical to manipulate the IV. A natural experiment may be the only way casual research can be done for such topics
What are the disadvantages of natural experiments (2)
Participants are not randomly allocated - experimenter has no control over which participants are placed in which condition as the IV is pre-existing. May result in CVs that aren’t controlled
Types of experiment - what is a quasi-experiment?
IV is based on a pre-existing difference between people, e.g. age or gender. No one has manipulated this variable, it simply exists. DV may be naturally occurring or may be devised by the experimenter and measured in the field or lab
What are the advantages of quasi-experiments
The IV is a difference between people. this means that comparisons between different types of people can be made
What are the disadvantages of quasi-experiments
Participants are not randomly allocated - the experimenter has no control over which participants are placed in which condition as the IV is pre-existing. Participant variables may have caused the change in DV acting as a CV
why should the sample that is drawn be representative of the population
so generalisations can be made
What is the population
A group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn
Why is a sample needed
it is usually not possible to include all members of the population in the study, so a smaller group needs to be selected
What is a random sample?
A form of sampling in which all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
Describe the steps of selecting a random sample (3)
• A complete list of all members of the target population is obtained
• All of the names on the list are assigned a number
• The sample is selected through the use of a lottery method e.g. picking numbers from a hat
Strengths of random sampling
All members of the population have an equal chance of being chosen - high population validity
Weakness of random sampling (2)
Difficult and time-consuming to conduct - a complete list of the target population may be extremely difficult to obtain
What is a systematic sample?
When every nth member of the target population is selected
How is systematic sampling carried out (3)
• a sampling frame is produced - a list of people in the target population organised into e.g. alphabetical order
• a sampling system is nominated e.g. every 3rd person
• researcher works through the sampling frame until the sample is complete
Strength of systematic sampling
• objective - once the system for selecting has been established, the researcher has no influence over who is chosen
Weakness of systematic sampling (2)
• time consuming
• Participants may refuse to take part
What is a stratified sample?
A form of sampling in which the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) within a population
How is stratified sampling done (3)
• subgroups (strata) are identified, e.g. gender or age groups
• the proportions needed for the sample to be representative are worked out
• the participants that make up each stratum are selected using random sampling
Strength of stratified sampling
representative method - it is designed to accurately reflect the composition of the population, generalisation of findings becomes possible
Weakness of stratified sampling (2)
• the identified strata cannot reflect all the ways in which people are different
• complete representation of the target population is not possible
describe opportunity sampling (2)
• the researcher selects anyone who is willing and available
• they ask whoever is around at the time of the study e.g. in the street
Strength of opportunity sampling
• convenient - much less costly in terms of money and time, the researcher just makes use of the people who are closest
Weaknesses of opportunity sampling
• the sample is unrepresentative of the target population as it is drawn from a very specific area, the findings can’t be generalised to the target population
What is a volunteer sample?
Involves participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample
How is a volunteer sample selected?
• advertise e.g. in a newspaper or ask people to put hands up to volunteer
Strength of volunteer sampling (2)
Requires minimal input from the researcher and is therefore less time-consuming in comparison to other samples
Weakness of volunteer sampling
Volunteer bias - asking for volunteers may attract a certain ‘profile’ of person, one who is curious and more likely to try to please the researcher, might affect how far findings can be generalised
What are ethical issues?
when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data
What is the BPS code of conduct
A quasi-legal document to protect participants based on four principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity
What do ethics committees do
weigh up costs (e.g. potential harm) and benefits (e.g. value of research) before deciding whether a study should go ahead
What does informed consent involve (2)
• making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, their rights, and also what their data will be used for
• participants should then make an informed judgment about whether to take part without being coerced or feeling obliged
Disadvantage of informed consent
may make the study meaningless because participants’ behaviour will not be ‘natural’ as they know the aims of the study
How is informed consent obtained?
• Participants should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information. If the participant agrees, it is then signed
• If the participants are under 16, a signature of parental consent is required
What is presumptive consent
Rather than getting consent from the participants themselves, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable. If this group agrees, then consent of the original participants is ‘presumed’
What is prior general consent
Participants give permission to take part in a number of different studies, including one that will involve deception. By consenting, participants are effectively consenting to be deceived
What is retrospective consent
Participants are asked for their consent during debriefing having already taken part in the study. They may not have been aware of their participation or they may have been subject to deception
What is deception
deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation
When is deception justified
if it does not cause the participant undue distress
To deal with deception at the end of a study, participants should be given a full debrief. What should this include (4)
• the true aims of the investigation
• details that were not given during the study e.g. existence of other groups or conditions
• what their data will be used for
• their right to withhold data
Why and how should researchers protect their participants from harm (3)
• Participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would in their daily lives, and should be protected from physical and psychological harm
• right to withdraw at each stage of the research process
• should be reassured that their behaviour was typical/normal during the debriefing
• provide counselling if participants have been subject to stress or embarrassment
What do participants have the right to control
information about themselves - right of privacy. If this is invaded, confidentiality should be respected
How do researchers deal with confidentiality (3)
• If personal details are held these must be protected (legal requirement)
• researchers refer to participants using numbers, initials or false names
• participants’ personal data cannot be shared with other researchers
What is a pilot study
A small-scale trial run of the actual investigation
Why do pilot studies take place?
To ‘road-test’ the procedure and check the investigation runs smoothly
What is a single-blind procedure?
Where the participant does not know the aims of the study so that demand characteristics are reduced
What is a double blind procedure
Where both participant and researcher does not know the aims of the study to reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects
What is a control group?
In an experiment with an independent groups design, a group of participants who receive no treatment. Their behaviour acts as a baseline against which the effect of the IV may be measured
What is a control condition?
The condition in a repeated measures design that provides a baseline measure of behaviour without the experimental treatment (IV)
what are observational techniques?
A way of seeing or listening to what people do without having to ask them. Observation is often used within an experiment as a way of assessing the DV
Advantage of all observations
• Capture what people actually do - people often act differently from how they say they will in self-report methods. So they are useful because they give insight into spontaneous behaviour
Disadvantage of all observations
• Observer bias - researcher’s interpretation of the situation may be affected by expectations. Bias can be reduced using more than one observer
What is a naturalistic observation?
Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur
Advantages of a naturalistic observation?
• High external validity - in a natural context, behaviour is more likely to be spontaneous. Therefore, the findings are more generalisable to everyday life
Disadvantage of a naturalistic observation
• Lack of control - makes replication of the investigation difficult. May also be many uncontrolled CVs/ EVs that make it more difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour
What is a controlled observation?
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment e.g. one where some variables are managed
Advantage of controlled observations
CVs/ EVs may be less of a factor so replication of the observation becomes easier
Disadvantage of controlled observations
May have less external validity - behaviour may be contrived as a result of the setting. Findings cannot be applied to everyday experience
What is a covert observation?
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent
Advantage of covert observations
Demand characteristics are reduced - participants do not know that they are being watched so their behaviour will be more natural. This increases the internal validity of the findings
Disadvantage of covert observations
Ethically questionable - people may not want behaviour recorded, even in public. Participants’ right to privacy may be affected
What is an overt observation?
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent
Advantage of overt observations
More ethically acceptable - participants have given their consent to be studied. They have the right to withdraw if they wish
Disadvantage of overt observations
Demand characteristics - the knowledge of being studied may influence their behaviour. This reduces the internal validity of the findings
What is participant observation?
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording
Advantage of participant observation
• Can lead to greater insight - researcher experiences the situation as the participants do. This enhances the external validity of the findings
Disadvantage of participant observation
• Possible loss of objectivity - researcher may identify too strongly with those they are studying. This threatens the objectivity and internal validity of the findings
What is non-participant observation
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording
Advantage of non-participant observation
• More objective - researcher maintains an objective distance so less chance of bias. May increase the internal validity of the findings
Disadvantage of non-participant observation
• Loss of insight - researcher may be too far removed from those they are studying. May reduce the external validity of the findings
What are behavioural categories
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable (operationalisation)
Disadvantages of behavioural categories (2)
• Difficult to make clear and unambiguous - categories should be self-evident and not overlap, not always possible to achieve. E.g. ‘smiling’ and ‘grinning’ would be poor categories
What is continuous recording (used in unstructured observations)
Making a note of everything without pause
How do researchers sample their observations in structured observations
They use a systematic way of sampling
What is event sampling
A target behaviour/event is recorded every time it occurs
Advantage of event sampling
• Useful for infrequent behaviour - researchers will still pick up behaviours that do not happen at regular intervals. Such behaviours could easily be missed using time sampling
Disadvantage of event sampling
• Complex behaviour oversimplified - if the event is too complex, important details may go unrecorded. This may affect the validity of the findings
What is time sampling
Observations are made at regular intervals
Advantage of time sampling
• Reduces the number of observations - rather than recording everything that is seen data is recorded at certain intervals. This observation is more structured and systematic
Disadvantage of time sampling
• May be unrepresentative - researcher may miss important details outside of the timescale. May not reflect the whole behaviour
What is a questionnaire
A set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences
What are open questions and what sort of data do they usually produce
Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish
Qualitative
What are closed questions and what sort of data do they usually produce
Questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter
Quantitative
Advantages of questionnaires (2)
• cost-effective - they can gather large amounts of data quickly because they can be distributed to large numbers of people
• straight-forward to analyse - particularly if closed, fixed-choice questions are used. The data lends itself to statistical analysis, and comparisons between groups of people can be made using graphs and charts
Disadvantages of questionnaires (2)
• Responses may not always be truthful - respondents tend to present themselves in a positive light. Therefore social desirability bias is possible
• Response bias - respondents may favour a particular kind of bias e.g. they always agree. This means that all respondents tend to reply in a similar way
What is an interview
A ‘live’ encounter where an interviewer asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thoughts and/or experiences
What are structured interviews made up of
A pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order
Advantage of structured interviews
• Easy to replicate - straightforward to replicate because of the standardised format. The format also reduces differences between interviewers
Disadvantage of structured interviews
• Interviewers cannot elaborate - interviewers cannot deviate from the topic or explain their questions. This may limit the richness of data collected
Describe unstructured interviews
There are no set questions, there is a general topic to be discussed but the interaction is free-flowing and the interviewee is encouraged to elaborate
Advantage of unstructured interviews
• There is greater flexibility - unlike a structured interview, points can be followed up as they arise. More likely to gain insight into interviewee’s worldview and collect unexpected information
Disadvantage of unstructured interviews
Increased risk of interviewer bias - closer dialogue between interviewer and interviewee. Means more opportunity for unconscious cues
What is a semi-structured interview
An interview that combines some predetermined questions and some questions developed in response to answers given
What is the fixed choice option
Question with a predetermined number of answers
What is qualitative data?
Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical
Advantage and disadvantage of qualitative data
• Offers a researcher more richness of data - much broader in scope than quantitative data. More meaningful, has a greater external validity
• Difficult to analyse - hard to identify patterns and make comparisons. Leads to subjective interpretation and researcher bias
What is quantitative data?
Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers
Advantage and disadvantage of quantitative data
• Easier to analyse - can draw graphs and calculate averages. So comparisons between groups can be made
• Narrower in meaning - expresses less detail than qualitative data. Has a lower external validity
What is primary data?
‘First-hand’ data collected for the purpose of the investigation
Advantage and disadvantage of primary data
• Fits the job - study is designed to extract only the data needed. Information is directly relevant to research aims
• Requires time and effort - designing and collating questionnaires takes time and expense. Secondary data can be accessed within minutes
What is secondary data?
Collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research
Advantage and disadvantage of secondary data
• Inexpensive - the desired information may already exist. Requires minimal effort
• Quality may be poor - information may be outdated or incomplete. Challenges the validity of any conclusions
What is a meta-analysis?
A type of secondary data that involves combining data from a large number of studies
Advantage and disadvantage of a meta-analysis
• Increases validity of conclusions - the eventual sample size is much larger than individual samples. Increases the extent to which generalisations can be made
• Publication bias - researchers may not select all relevant studies, leaving out negative or non-significant results. Therefore conclusions may lack validity
What is peer review?
Before publication, all aspects of the investigation are scrutinised by experts in the field
Aims of peer review (3)
• Allocate research funding
• To validate the quality of research in terms of accuracy
• To suggest amendments or improvements before research is published
Advantage of peer review
Protects quality of published research - minimises possibility of fraudulent research and means published research is of the highest quality
Disadvantages of peer review (2)
• Publication bias - tendency for editors of journals to want to publish headline-grabbing findings. Means that research that does not meet this criterion is ignored
• Ground-breaking research may be buried - reviewers may be much more critical of research that contradicts their own view. Peer review may slow down the rate of change within scientific disciplines
Definition of measure of central tendency and measures of dispersion
Ways of describing a set of data
Measures of central tendency - mean advantage and disadvantage
• Sensitive measure - includes all the scores/values in the data set within the calculation. Represents data better than median or mode
• May be unrepresentative - one very large or small number makes it distorted. The median or the mode tend not to be so easily distorted
Measures of central tendency - median advantage and disadvantage
• Less affected by extreme scores. The median is only focused on the middle value. In some cases may be more representative of the data set as a whole
• Less sensitive than the mean - the actual values of lower and higher numbers are ignored. Extreme values may be important
Measures of central tendency - mode advantage and disadvantage
- It is unaffected by extreme scores
- It doesn’t take all the scores in the data set into consideration
Measures of dispersion - range advantage and disadvantage
• Easy to calculate - arrange values in order and subtract largest from smallest. Simple formula, easier than standard deviation
• Does not account for the distribution of the scores - the range does not indicate whether most numbers are closely grouped around the mean or spread out evenly. The standard deviation is a much better measure of dispersion in this respect
Measures of dispersion - standard deviation advantage and disadvantage
(Measure of the average spread around the mean. The larger the standard deviation, the more spread out the data is)
• More precise than the range - includes all values within the calculation. Therefore more accurate picture of the overall distribution of data set
• May be misleading - can be distorted by extreme values. Also, extreme values may not be revealed, unlike with the range
