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Psychology > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

1
Q

What are the three processes involved in memory

A

Coding, storage, retrieval

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2
Q

What is coding and give the three types of coding

A

The format in which information is stored in the various memory stores
acoustic, visual, semantic

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3
Q

What is capacity

A

The amount of information that can be held in a memory store

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4
Q

What is duration

A

The length of time information can be held in a memory

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5
Q

What does the multi-store model describe?

A

How information flows through the memory system

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6
Q

What does the MSM suggest that memory is made up of

A

Three stores linked by processing (sensory register, STM, LTM)

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7
Q

What does the multi-store model believe memory works in

A

a linear fashion - it is not possible to skip a store

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8
Q

MSM - What passes into the sensory register and what does this part of memory comprise

A

All stimuli from the environment
A sensory memory store for each of our 5 senses

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9
Q

MSM - What is the coding in each store of the sensory register and how

A

modality-specific = depends on the sense
e.g. iconic - information is coded visually, echoic - information is coded acoustically

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10
Q

MSM - What is iconic and echoic memory (sensory register)

A

iconic - store for visual information
echoic - store for auditory information

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11
Q

MSM - Describe the capacity and the duration of the sensory register

A

very high capacity
duration of less than half a second

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12
Q

MSM - How does information transfer from the sensory register to STM
how is information forgotten from the sensory register

A

Only if attention is payed to it
by decay

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13
Q

What is STM

A

A limited capacity store of temporary duration

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14
Q

MSM - How is information coded in STM
What is the duration of STM
What is the capacity of STM
How can information be forgotten from STM

A

acoustically
18 seconds, unless the information is rehearsed
7+/-2 items
decay and displacement

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15
Q

MSM - Describe the transfer of information from STM to LTM

A

Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat material to ourselves. We can keep information in STM as long as we rehearse it. Prolonged rehearsal - If the information is rehearsed long enough, then it can pass through to LTM

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16
Q

What is long-term memory

A

A permanent memory store

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17
Q

MSM - How is information coded in LTM
What is the duration of LTM
What is the capacity of LTM

A

semantically
potentially up to a lifetime
potentially unlimited

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18
Q

MSM - How is information stored in LTM recalled

A

if it is transferred back to STM by a process called retrieval

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19
Q

Who suggested that there are three types of LTM?

A

Tulving (1985)

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20
Q

1) What is episodic memory
2) Why are episodic memories complex
3) Are they time-stamped or not and why
4) Are they explicit or implicit and why
5) In which brain region is episodic memory located in

A

• Refers to information stored about events in our lives (e.g. our first day at school)
• They contain a large amount of information, for example information about the people, places, objects and behaviours
• Time-stamped - you remember when they happened and how they relate in time
• Explicit - info you consciously work to remember
• Right prefrontal cortex or hippocampus

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21
Q

1) What is semantic memory
2) Are semantic memories time-stamped or not and why
3) Are they explicit or implicit and why
4) In which brain region is semantic memory located

A

• A store which contains facts and knowledge about the world e.g. the capital of France and meaning of words
• Not time-stamped - we don’t remember when we learned these things
• Explicit - info you consciously work to remember
• Left prefrontal cortex or temporal lobe

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22
Q

1) What is procedural memory
2) Are procedural memories explicit or implicit and why
3) Are they time stamped or not time stamped and why
4) In which brain region are procedural memories located

A

• A store for our memory of actions e.g. how to ride a bike
• Implicit - info remembered unconsciously and effortlessly
• Not time stamped - we don’t remember when we learned these things
• Motor cortex and cerebellum

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23
Q

What is the working memory model

A

An explanation of how short-term memory is organised and how it functions

24
Q

WMM - What does the central executive do (3)
Describe the coding and capacity of the central executive

A

monitors incoming data, directs attention and allocates subsystems to tasks
Coding - flexible
Capacity - very limited

25
Q

WMM - What are the three subsystems of the working memory model

A

Phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, episodic buffer

26
Q

WMM - What does the phonological loop do?

A

Deals with auditory information and preserves the order in which the information arrives

27
Q

WMM - What is the phonological loop subdivided into and what do they do (2)

A

Phonological store - stores the words you hear
Articulatory process - allows maintenance rehearsal

28
Q

WMM - What is the coding and the capacity of the phonological loop?

A

Coding - acoustic
Capacity - about two seconds’ worth of what you can say

29
Q

WMM - What does the visuo-spatial sketchpad do?

A

Stores visual and/or spatial information when required

30
Q

WMM - What is the VSS subdivided into and what do they do? (2)

A

Visual cache - stores visual data
Inner scribe - records the arrangement of objects in the visual field

31
Q

WMM - What is the coding and capacity of the VSS

A

Coding - visual and spatial
Capacity - 3 or 4 objects

32
Q

WMM - What does the episodic buffer do (4)

A

Temporary store for information
Integrates visual, spatial and verbal information from other stores
Maintains a sense of time sequencing - records events that are happening
Links the working memory to LTM

33
Q

WMM - What is the coding and capacity of the episodic buffer

A

Coding - flexible
Capacity - about 4 ‘chunks’

34
Q

Explanations for forgetting - What is interference?

A

Forgetting because one memory blocks another, causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten

35
Q

Explanations for forgetting - What is proactive interference and give an example of it

A

When an older memory disrupts a newer one
You have recently started learning Spanish but keep getting confused with the French you learned a few years ago

36
Q

Explanations for forgetting - What is retroactive interference and give an example of it

A

When a newer memory disrupts an older one
You know your current phone number but can’t remember your old one

37
Q

Explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure-
What is retrieval failure? (2)
It occurs

A

A form of forgetting
It occurs when we do not have the necessary cues to access memory. The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided

38
Q

Explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure - Why can a lack of cues cause retrieval failure? (2)
What is a cue?

A

When information is initially placed in memory, associated cues are stored at the same time
If the cues are not available at the time of retrieval, you might not access memories that are actually there

A ‘trigger’ of information that allows us to access a memory

39
Q

Explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure- What does the encoding specificity principle (Tulving 1983) say? (2)
Cues help
If the

A

Cues help retrieval if the same ones are present both at encoding and at retrieval
If the cues available at encoding and retrieval are different or if cues are entirely absent then there will be some forgetting

40
Q

Explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure - What is context-dependent forgetting?

A

Recall depends on external cue e.g. weather or a place

41
Q

Explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure - What is state-dependent forgetting?

A

Recall depends on internal cue e.g. feeling upset, being drunk

42
Q

Eyewitness testimony: misleading information - what is a leading question?

A

A question which, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer

43
Q

Why do leading questions affect EWT? - response-bias explanation

A

Wording of a question has no enduring effect on an eyewitness’s memory of an event, but influences the kind of answer given

44
Q

Why do leading questions affect EWT? - substitution explanation

A

Wording of a question does affect eyewitness memory, it interferes with the original memory, distorting its accuracy

45
Q

Why does post-event information affect EWT? - memory contamination

A

When co-witnesses discuss a crime, they mix (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories

46
Q

Why does post-event information affect EWT? - memory conformity

A

Witnesses go along with each other to win social approval or because they believe the other witnesses are right

47
Q

Eyewitness testimony: anxiety - explaining the contradictory findings - Describe the inverted U theory

A

Yerkes and Dodson (1908) argue that the relationship between performance and stress is an inverted U

48
Q

Eyewitness testimony: the cognitive interview - What is the cognitive interview?

A

A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories

49
Q

What is the cognitive interview designed to do? (2)

A

Effectively get the most reliable recall from an eyewitness
Reduce the possibility of EWT being affected by leading questions

50
Q

What are the 4 stages of the cognitive interview?

A

1) Report everything
2) Context reinstatement
3) Recall in reverse order
4) Recall from a different perspective

51
Q

Describe report everything

A

Witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail of the event, no matter how trivial, other important memories may be triggered

52
Q

Eyewitness testimony: the cognitive interview - Describe context reinstatement

A

The witness returns to the original crime scene in their mind and imagines the environment (e.g. smells, sights) and their emotions (e.g. happy, bored)
Related to context-dependent forgetting

53
Q

Describe recall in reverse order and describe the benefits of it

A

Events are recalled in a different order from the original sequence
This prevents people reporting their expectations of how the event must have happened rather than reporting the actual events, also makes lying more difficult

54
Q

Describe recall from a different perspective and the benefits of it

A

Witnesses recall the incident from other people’s perspectives
This prevents the influence of expectations and schema on recall

55
Q

How do schemas influence recall

A

The schema you have for a particular setting generates expectations of what would have happened and it is the schema that is recalled rather than what actually happened

56
Q

What does the enhanced cognitive interview include (5)

A

Ask open-ended questions
Adapt language to suit the witness - don’t want witness to misunderstand - think about IQ and age
Minimise distractions
Avoid judgemental comments
Encourage witnesses to relax and speak slowly

57
Q

Why is asking closed questions bad? (2)

A

Leading
Limit the amount of information

Psychology (12 decks)

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