Memory Flashcards
What are the three processes involved in memory
Coding, storage, retrieval
What is coding and give the three types of coding
The format in which information is stored in the various memory stores
acoustic, visual, semantic
What is capacity
The amount of information that can be held in a memory store
What is duration
The length of time information can be held in a memory
What does the multi-store model describe?
How information flows through the memory system
What does the MSM suggest that memory is made up of
Three stores linked by processing (sensory register, STM, LTM)
What does the multi-store model believe memory works in
a linear fashion - it is not possible to skip a store
MSM - What passes into the sensory register and what does this part of memory comprise
All stimuli from the environment
A sensory memory store for each of our 5 senses
MSM - What is the coding in each store of the sensory register and how
modality-specific = depends on the sense
e.g. iconic - information is coded visually, echoic - information is coded acoustically
MSM - What is iconic and echoic memory (sensory register)
iconic - store for visual information
echoic - store for auditory information
MSM - Describe the capacity and the duration of the sensory register
very high capacity
duration of less than half a second
MSM - How does information transfer from the sensory register to STM
how is information forgotten from the sensory register
Only if attention is payed to it
by decay
What is STM
A limited capacity store of temporary duration
MSM - How is information coded in STM
What is the duration of STM
What is the capacity of STM
How can information be forgotten from STM
acoustically
18 seconds, unless the information is rehearsed
7+/-2 items
decay and displacement
MSM - Describe the transfer of information from STM to LTM
Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat material to ourselves. We can keep information in STM as long as we rehearse it. Prolonged rehearsal - If the information is rehearsed long enough, then it can pass through to LTM
What is long-term memory
A permanent memory store
MSM - How is information coded in LTM
What is the duration of LTM
What is the capacity of LTM
semantically
potentially up to a lifetime
potentially unlimited
MSM - How is information stored in LTM recalled
if it is transferred back to STM by a process called retrieval
Who suggested that there are three types of LTM?
Tulving (1985)
1) What is episodic memory
2) Why are episodic memories complex
3) Are they time-stamped or not and why
4) Are they explicit or implicit and why
5) In which brain region is episodic memory located in
• Refers to information stored about events in our lives (e.g. our first day at school)
• They contain a large amount of information, for example information about the people, places, objects and behaviours
• Time-stamped - you remember when they happened and how they relate in time
• Explicit - info you consciously work to remember
• Right prefrontal cortex or hippocampus
1) What is semantic memory
2) Are semantic memories time-stamped or not and why
3) Are they explicit or implicit and why
4) In which brain region is semantic memory located
• A store which contains facts and knowledge about the world e.g. the capital of France and meaning of words
• Not time-stamped - we don’t remember when we learned these things
• Explicit - info you consciously work to remember
• Left prefrontal cortex or temporal lobe
1) What is procedural memory
2) Are procedural memories explicit or implicit and why
3) Are they time stamped or not time stamped and why
4) In which brain region are procedural memories located
• A store for our memory of actions e.g. how to ride a bike
• Implicit - info remembered unconsciously and effortlessly
• Not time stamped - we don’t remember when we learned these things
• Motor cortex and cerebellum
What is the working memory model
An explanation of how short-term memory is organised and how it functions
WMM - What does the central executive do (3)
Describe the coding and capacity of the central executive
monitors incoming data, directs attention and allocates subsystems to tasks
Coding - flexible
Capacity - very limited
WMM - What are the three subsystems of the working memory model
Phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, episodic buffer
WMM - What does the phonological loop do?
Deals with auditory information and preserves the order in which the information arrives
WMM - What is the phonological loop subdivided into and what do they do (2)
Phonological store - stores the words you hear
Articulatory process - allows maintenance rehearsal
WMM - What is the coding and the capacity of the phonological loop?
Coding - acoustic
Capacity - about two seconds’ worth of what you can say
WMM - What does the visuo-spatial sketchpad do?
Stores visual and/or spatial information when required
WMM - What is the VSS subdivided into and what do they do? (2)
Visual cache - stores visual data
Inner scribe - records the arrangement of objects in the visual field
WMM - What is the coding and capacity of the VSS
Coding - visual and spatial
Capacity - 3 or 4 objects
WMM - What does the episodic buffer do (4)
Temporary store for information
Integrates visual, spatial and verbal information from other stores
Maintains a sense of time sequencing - records events that are happening
Links the working memory to LTM
WMM - What is the coding and capacity of the episodic buffer
Coding - flexible
Capacity - about 4 ‘chunks’
Explanations for forgetting - What is interference?
Forgetting because one memory blocks another, causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten
Explanations for forgetting - What is proactive interference and give an example of it
When an older memory disrupts a newer one
You have recently started learning Spanish but keep getting confused with the French you learned a few years ago
Explanations for forgetting - What is retroactive interference and give an example of it
When a newer memory disrupts an older one
You know your current phone number but can’t remember your old one
Explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure-
What is retrieval failure? (2)
It occurs
A form of forgetting
It occurs when we do not have the necessary cues to access memory. The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided
Explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure - Why can a lack of cues cause retrieval failure? (2)
What is a cue?
When information is initially placed in memory, associated cues are stored at the same time
If the cues are not available at the time of retrieval, you might not access memories that are actually there
A ‘trigger’ of information that allows us to access a memory
Explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure- What does the encoding specificity principle (Tulving 1983) say? (2)
Cues help
If the
Cues help retrieval if the same ones are present both at encoding and at retrieval
If the cues available at encoding and retrieval are different or if cues are entirely absent then there will be some forgetting
Explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure - What is context-dependent forgetting?
Recall depends on external cue e.g. weather or a place
Explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure - What is state-dependent forgetting?
Recall depends on internal cue e.g. feeling upset, being drunk
Eyewitness testimony: misleading information - what is a leading question?
A question which, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer
Why do leading questions affect EWT? - response-bias explanation
Wording of a question has no enduring effect on an eyewitness’s memory of an event, but influences the kind of answer given
Why do leading questions affect EWT? - substitution explanation
Wording of a question does affect eyewitness memory, it interferes with the original memory, distorting its accuracy
Why does post-event information affect EWT? - memory contamination
When co-witnesses discuss a crime, they mix (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories
Why does post-event information affect EWT? - memory conformity
Witnesses go along with each other to win social approval or because they believe the other witnesses are right
Eyewitness testimony: anxiety - explaining the contradictory findings - Describe the inverted U theory
Yerkes and Dodson (1908) argue that the relationship between performance and stress is an inverted U
Eyewitness testimony: the cognitive interview - What is the cognitive interview?
A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories
What is the cognitive interview designed to do? (2)
Effectively get the most reliable recall from an eyewitness
Reduce the possibility of EWT being affected by leading questions
What are the 4 stages of the cognitive interview?
1) Report everything
2) Context reinstatement
3) Recall in reverse order
4) Recall from a different perspective
Describe report everything
Witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail of the event, no matter how trivial, other important memories may be triggered
Eyewitness testimony: the cognitive interview - Describe context reinstatement
The witness returns to the original crime scene in their mind and imagines the environment (e.g. smells, sights) and their emotions (e.g. happy, bored)
Related to context-dependent forgetting
Describe recall in reverse order and describe the benefits of it
Events are recalled in a different order from the original sequence
This prevents people reporting their expectations of how the event must have happened rather than reporting the actual events, also makes lying more difficult
Describe recall from a different perspective and the benefits of it
Witnesses recall the incident from other people’s perspectives
This prevents the influence of expectations and schema on recall
How do schemas influence recall
The schema you have for a particular setting generates expectations of what would have happened and it is the schema that is recalled rather than what actually happened
What does the enhanced cognitive interview include (5)
Ask open-ended questions
Adapt language to suit the witness - don’t want witness to misunderstand - think about IQ and age
Minimise distractions
Avoid judgemental comments
Encourage witnesses to relax and speak slowly
Why is asking closed questions bad? (2)
Leading
Limit the amount of information
