Approaches Flashcards
What did Descartes do?
Came up with the concept of dualism - the mind and body are separate
What did Wilhelm Wundt publish?
The first ever book on psychology called ‘Principles of Physiological Psychology’
What did Wilhelm Wundt open and what was the aim?
The first psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany in 1879
To describe the nature of human consciousness in a carefully controlled and scientific environment
What did Wundt train over 100 students to do
Study psychology as a science
Wilhelm Wundt pioneered introspection. What is introspection?
The process in which a person examines their inner world, by consciously observing their thoughts and emotions. It is the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind
What was one of Wundt’s main objectives?
How did he do this?
The same ‘what’ were given to all participants and ‘what’ were presented in the same order?
• To try to develop theories about mental processes, such as language and perception
• He asked participants to describe their experiences when presented with a set of stimuli. e.g. participants were given a ticking metronome and they would report their thoughts, images and sensations, which were then recorded
• Standardised instructions and stimuli
what are standardised instructions
using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study to avoid investigator effects caused by different procedures/instructions
Describe the impact of introspection (2)
• Led to identifying the structure of consciousness by breaking it up into the basic structures: thoughts, images and sensations
• This marked the beginning of scientific psychology, separating it from its broader philosophical roots
Emergence of psychology as a science (1900s early behaviourists rejected introspection) - Watson (early behaviourist 1913) argued that introspection was what?
Subjective, in that it is influenced by a personal perspective
Emergence of Psychology as a science - Watson and Skinner proposed that a truly scientific psychology should only study what?
Phenomena that can be observed objectively and measured
Emergence of Psychology as a science - Behaviourists focused on behaviour that they could what?
What sort of experiments did they use?
The approach would dominate scientific psychology for the next how many years?
See
Carefully controlled
50 years
Emergence of Psychology as a science - following the computer revolution of the 1950s, the study of mental processes was seen as what?
Legitimate within psychology
Emergence of Psychology as a science - what did cognitive psychologists do?
Likened
Likened the mind to a computer and tested their predictions about memory and attention using experiments
Emergence of psychology as a science 1980s - How have biological psychologists used advances in technology to investigate physiological processes as they happen? (2)
• Use sophisticated scanning techniques such as fMRI and EEG to study live activity in the brain
• New methods e.g. genetic testing have also allowed us to better understand the relationship between genes and nature
The behaviourist approach - the behaviourist approach is only interested in studying behaviour that can be what? (2)
What is it not concerned with?
Observed and measured
Investigating mental processes of the mind because these were seen as irrelevant
The behaviourist approach - What did the behaviourists try to maintain?
Control and objectivity within their research and relied on lab studies to achieve this
The behaviourist approach - behaviourists believe that all behaviour is what?
They think we are born a what?
Learned
A ‘blank slate’ and this is written on from experience
The behaviourist approach - Why did behaviourists use animals in their research?
They believe that the processes that govern learning are the same in all species, so animals can replace humans as environmental subjects
The behaviourist approach - What were the two forms of learning behaviourists identified?
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
The behaviourist approach - What is classical conditioning?
Learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together
The behaviourist approach - What is generalisation?
The tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli
The behaviourist approach - What is operant conditioning?
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive or negative reinforcement and punishment
The behaviourist approach - What is reinforcement?
A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. Can be positive or negative
The behaviourist approach - What is positive reinforcement?
Receiving a reward when behaviour is performed
The behaviourist approach - What is negative reinforcement?
Avoiding something unpleasant when a behaviour is performed
The behaviourist approach - What is punishment, and positive and negative punishment
• Punishment - An unpleasant consequence of behaviour
• Positive punishment - add something to decrease behaviour
• Negative punishment - remove something to decrease behaviour
Social learning theory - What does the social learning theory believe? (2)
• Behaviour can be learned through observation and imitation
• By observing the consequences of behaviour we learn whether to carry out this behaviour in the future or not
Social learning theory - if we observe another person being reinforced for their behaviour, we are more likely to what?
Imitate it - vicarious reinforcement
Social learning theory - What is vicarious reinforcement?
Reinforcement
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour
Social learning theory - What is imitation?
Copying the behaviour of others
Social learning theory - What are the four mediational processes in learning proposed by Bandura?
Attention - noticing the behaviour and consequences
Retention - remembering the behaviour and consequences
Motor reproduction - being able to carry out the behaviour (identification here)
Motivation - wanting to imitate the behaviour (determined by if the behaviour is reinforced or not + vicarious reinforcement here)
Social learning theory - people are more likely to imitate the behaviour of who?
The person they identify with is called a what?
The process of imitating a role model is called what?
People they identify with - identification (when an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model)
Role model
Modelling
Social learning theory - What is modelling?
When the observer imitates the behaviour of a role model, or the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
The cognitive approach - in direct contrast to the behaviourist approach, the cognitive approach argues that internal mental processes can and should be what?
Studied scientifically
The cognitive approach - mental processes are ‘private’ and cannot be observed, so how do cognitive psychologists study them?
Indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside people’s minds on the basis of their behaviour
The cognitive approach -cognitive processing can often be affected by what?
Schema
The cognitive approach - What are schema? (2)
Packages of information developed through experience
They act as a ‘mental framework’ for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system
The cognitive approach - Give an example of a schema
What happens to our schemas as we get older?
Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping
They become more detailed and sophisticated
The cognitive approach - What two things are used to explain mental processes?
Theoretical models and computer models
The cognitive approach - describe one theoretical model
Information processing approach - Information flows through a sequence of stages that include input, storage, and retrieval
The cognitive approach - What are computer models? (2)
• Programmes that can be run on a computer to imitate the human mind
• Psychologists can use these programmes to test their ideas about information processing
The cognitive approach - What is cognitive neuroscience?
The scientific
The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
The cognitive approach - Why are scientists able to describe the neurological basis of mental processing
Due to the advances in brain scanning technology in the last 20 years
The cognitive approach - scanning techniques have proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of what?
Some disorders e.g the parahippocampal gyrus and OCD
The biological approach - what does the biological approach suggest?
If we want to fully understand human behaviour we must look to biological structures and processes within the body, such as genes and neurochemistry
The biological approach - why does the biological approach believe that all thoughts, feelings and behaviour have a physical basis? (contrast to the cognitive approach)
the mind lives in the brain
The biological approach - What is neurochemistry?
the action of chemicals in the brain
The biological approach - what are neurotransmitters?
An imbalance of neurotransmitters may be a cause of what?
chemicals within the brain
Some mental disorders e.g. low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin has been linked to OCD
The biological approach - what does the biological approach say can be inherited?
psychological characteristics
The biological approach - what are used to investigate genetic influences?
twin studies - concordance rates between twins are calculated - the extent to which twins share the same characteristic
The biological approach - what are concordance rates?
The percent of cases in which both members of a pair have a particular attribute
The biological approach - higher concordance rates among identical twins (MZ) than non-identical twins (DZ) is evidence of what?
A genetic basis
The biological approach - why are higher concordance rates found among monozygotic twins than dizygotic twins
as they share 100% of their DNA with each other, they are more likely to share the same behaviour
The biological approach - what is a genotype?
A person’s actual genetic make up
The biological approach - What is a phenotype?
the way that genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics
The biological approach - what can the expression of a genotype be influenced by and what is an example of this?
Environmental factors
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disorder that can be prevented by a restricted diet. This suggests that much of human behaviour depends on the interaction of nature and nurture
The biological approach - explain the theory of natural selection proposed by Darwin (1859) (2)
• Any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will be passed on to future generations
• Such genes are described as adaptive and give the possessor and their offspring advantages
The biological approach - what is an example of a naturally selected behaviour
attachment behaviours in newborns promote survival and are therefore adaptive and naturally selected
The psychodynamic approach - what did Freud suggest the mind is made up of? (3)
conscious - what we are aware of
preconscious - thoughts we may become aware of through dreams and ‘slips of the tongue’
unconscious - thoughts, memories and feelings that we are unaware of that influence our behaviour
The psychodynamic approach - our personality is made up of what three interacting elements?
Tripartite structure: id (birth) , ego (2 years old) , superego (5 years old)
The psychodynamic approach - what is the id? (3)
• Primitive part of the personality that operates on the pleasure principle
• Demands instant gratification
• Has no morals
The psychodynamic approach - what is the ego? (2)
• Works on the reality principle and is the mediator between the id and superego
• Its role is to reduce the conflict between the demands of the id and the Superego
The psychodynamic approach - what is the superego? (3)
• Internalised sense of right and wrong
• Based on the morality principle it represents the moral standards of the child’s same-sex parent
• Punishes the ego through guilt.
The psychodynamic approach - what would happen if someone had too much of a superego?
they would feel guilty all the time
The psychodynamic approach - describe the five psychosexual stages (3)
• Determine adult personality
• Each stage is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve to move onto the next
• Any conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries behaviours associated with that stage through to adult life
The psychodynamic approach - the first stage (oral) - explain when it happens, what the pleasure focus is, what can cause fixation and what fixation at this stage can lead to
• 0-1 years
• mouth - the mother’s breast is the object of desire
• deprivation of food and love, early weaning
• smoking, overeating, drinking excessively, being needy, biting nails, sarcasm
The psychodynamic approach - the second stage (anal) - explain when it happens, what the pleasure focus is, what can cause fixation and what fixation at this stage can lead to (4)
• 1-3 years
• anus - the child gains pleasure from withholding and eliminating faeces
• harsh toilet training, lax toilet training
• an obsession with hygiene and potentially OCD, tidiness, meanness
The psychodynamic approach - the third stage (phallic) - explain when it happens, what the pleasure focus is, what can cause fixation and what fixation at this stage can lead to (4)
• 3-6 years
• genital area - pleasure comes from genital stimulation. Development differs between the sexes at this stage. (Oedipus Complex and the Electra Complex)
• no father figure, very dominant mother
• narcissism, sexual anxiety, envy, self-obsession
The psychodynamic approach - boys at the phallic stage - Oedipus Complex (4)
Primary love object
Father
Castration
Repress
• boys focus on their mother as a primary love object - they desire their mother
• they see their father as a rival and want him out of the way
• leads to a fear that the father will find out and castrate the boy as a punishment - castration anxiety
• boys repress their feelings for their mother, identify with their father, taking on his gender role and moral values - development of the superego
The psychodynamic approach - girls at the phallic stage - Electra Complex (6)
Mothers
Penis envy
Father
Hostile
Baby
Identifies
• desire their mothers
• develop penis envy
• develops affection for their father as the penis is the primary love object
• become hostile towards their mother as they see her as a love rival
• resolve feelings as they replace the desire for the father with a desire for a baby
• identify with their mother and internalises her moral views - development of the superego
The psychodynamic approach - the fourth stage (latency) - explain when it happens and what happens (3)
• 6 years - puberty
• calm period before puberty
• earlier conflicts are repressed
The psychodynamic approach - the fifth stage (genital) - explain when it happens, what happens, and what fixation at this stage can lead to (3)
• puberty into adulthood
• sexual desires become conscious
• difficulty forming adult relationships
What are defence mechanisms?
Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego
Describe the unconscious strategies called the defence mechanisms used by the Ego to reduce anxiety (3)
repression - pushing unwanted memories and emotions into the unconscious mind. The conscious mind can’t cope with it, no longer able to access it
denial - refusing to acknowledge reality
displacement - transferring feelings from their true source onto a substitute target
The humanistic approach - humanistic psychologists see humans as affected by what?
External and internal influences but self-determining (have free will)
The humanistic approach - why does the approach think that psychology should concern itself with subjective experience rather than general laws?
We are all unique
The humanistic approach - Describe Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (that he said motivate our behaviour)
The needs of the four lower levels (deficiency needs - physiological needs, safety and security, love and belonging and self-esteem) must be met before the individual can work towards self-actualisation (growth need) and fulfill their potential
The humanistic approach - what is self-actualisation?
The innate tendency that each of us has to want to achieve our full potential and become the best we can possibly be
The humanistic approach - what is the self?
The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes perception of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can do’
The humanistic approach - what is self-concept?
how you see yourself
The humanistic approach - what is the ideal self?
the self you want to be
The humanistic approach - what is the real self?
the self you actually are
The humanistic approach - Rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved an individual’s concept of self needs to be what with their ideal self?
congruent
The humanistic approach - if there is too big a gap between an individual’s concept of self and their ideal self, what happens?
The person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation isn’t possible
The humanistic approach - Rogers claimed that issues such as worthlessness and low self-esteem have their roots in what?
Childhood and are due to a lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents
The humanistic approach - how might a parent store up psychological problems for their child in the future?
If they set boundaries on their love for them (conditions of worth) by claiming ‘I will only love you if’
The humanistic approach - What did Rogers develop to close the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self?
A method….
Client-centred therapy - a method of treatment for mental disorders where the focus is on the problem from the client’s viewpoint rather than any diagnosis from the therapist
The humanistic approach - what is the aim of the therapy
To increase feelings of self-worth and reduce incongruence between the self-concept and the ideal self
in Rodger’s client centred therapy, an effective therapist should provide the client with what three things and what happens in the therapy
Client discovers
Therapist makes
Client will
• genuineness, empathy, unconditional positive regard
• client discovers their own solutions in a supportive and non-judgmental environment
• therapist makes the client feel accepted (unconditional positive regard)
• client will feel comfortable being honest and will be able to discover the barriers that prevent from being congruent
The humanistic approach - what is unconditional positive regard?
Accepting and respecting others as they are without judgment or evaluation
