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Forensic psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the main aim of offender profiling?

A

To narrow the list of likely suspects

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2
Q

What are the two types of offender profiling?

A
  • Top-down approach
  • Bottom-up approach
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3
Q

Give an overview of the top-down approach (4)
FBI
Crime scene
Violent crimes
Pre-existing typologies

A
  • The FBI were the first to use this approach in the 1970s
  • The profiler uses evidence at the crime scene to develop a profile of the likely offender
  • Most often used in violent crimes, such as murder
  • This is then compared to pre-existing typologies to assign the criminal to one of two categories - organised or disorganised offender
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4
Q

Top-down approach - what have the pre-existing typologies come from? (2)

A
  • The FBI interviewed 36 sexually-motivated murderers and used this data, together with characteristics of their crimes, to create two categories (organised and disorganised)
  • If the data from a crime scene matched some of the characteristics of one category we could then predict other characteristics that would be likely
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5
Q

Top-down approach - the organised and disorganised distinction is based on the idea that offenders have a certain what?

A

Modus operandi (set way of working), which usually relates to certain social and psychological characteristics

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6
Q

Top-down approach- what are organised offenders characterised by? (4)

A
  • Evidence of planning the crime - victim is deliberately targeted and the killer/rapist may have a ‘type’ of victim
  • High degree of control during the crime and little evidence left behind at the scene
  • Above-average IQ - may be in a skilled/professional job
  • Usually married and may have children
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7
Q

Top-down approach - what are disorganised offenders characterised by? (4)

A
  • Little evidence of planning, suggesting the offence may have been spontaneous
  • The crime scene reflects the impulsive nature of the act, e.g. body still at the scene and the crime shows little control on the part of the offender
  • Below-average IQ - may be in unskilled work or unemployed
  • A history of failed relationships and living alone, possibly history of sexual dysfunction
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8
Q

Top-down approach - what are the four main stages in the construction of an FBI profile?

A
  • Data assimilation - review of the evidence (photographs, pathology reports, etc)
  • Crime scene classification - organised or disorganised
  • Crime reconstruction - generation of hypotheses about the behaviour and events
  • Profile generation - generation of hypotheses about the offender (e.g. background, physical characteristics, etc.)
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9
Q

Give an overview of the bottom-up approach (3)

A
  • The aim is to generate a picture of the offenders’ characteristics, routines and background through analysis of the evidence
  • It does not begin with fixed typologies
  • Instead, the profile is ‘data-driven’ and emerges as the investigator scrutinises the details of the offence
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10
Q

The bottom-up approach - investigative psychology
Statistical procedures and psychological theory
Interpersonal coherence

A
  • Attempt to use statistical procedures and psychological theory - statistics are used to create a prediction of behaviour that is likely to occur in crimes. Specific details of an offence are matched to this to create details about the offender
  • Idea of ‘interpersonal coherence’ is key- how the offender acts during the crime is likely to relate to their actions in non-criminal situations. E.g. murderer who leaves a very neat and tidy crime scene may be obsessively neat and tidy in everyday life
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11
Q

The bottom-up approach - give an overview of geographical profiling (2)

A
  • The locations of crime scenes are used to infer the likely home or operational base of an offender - crime mapping
  • Serial offenders restrict their work to areas they are familiar with (spatial consistency). Location can also be used alongside psychological theory to create hypotheses about the offender and their modus operandi
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12
Q

The bottom-up approach (geographical profiling) - what were the two models of offender behaviour that Canter and Larkin (1993) proposed?

A
  • The marauder - operates close to their home base
  • The commuter - likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual residence when committing a crime
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13
Q

The bottom-up approach (geographical profiling) - describe the circle theory (Canter and Larkin) (2)

A
  • The pattern of offending locations is likely to form a circle around the offender’s usual residence, and this becomes more apparent the more offences there are
  • The offender’s spatial decision-making can provide insight into the nature of the offence - planned or opportunistic, mode of transport, employment status, etc.).
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14
Q

Biological explanations: a historical approach - what did Lombroso suggest? (3)

A
  • Criminals were ‘genetic throwbacks’ - a primitive subspecies who were biologically different from non-criminals
  • Offenders lacked evolutionary development. Their savage and untamed nature meant that they would find it impossible to adjust to civilised society and would inevitably turn to crime
  • Saw offending behaviour as an innate tendency
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15
Q

Biological explanations: a historical approach - describe atavistic characteristics (4)

A
  • Physiological markers are evident in criminals and are related to different types of crime
  • Cranial characteristics - narrow, sloping brow; strong, prominent jaw; high cheekbones; facial asymmetry
  • Dark skin, extra toes, nipples or fingers
  • Non-physical characteristics - insensitivity to pain, use of slang, tattoos and unemployment
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16
Q

Biological explanations: a historical approach - different types of offenders have different physical characteristics
Murderers
Sexual deviants

A
  • Murderers - bloodshot eyes, curly hair, long ears
  • Sexual deviants - glinting eyes with swollen fleshy lips
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17
Q

Biological explanations: Genetic - what do genetic explanations state?

A

Offenders have inherited a gene or combination of genes that predispose them to commit crimes

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18
Q

Biological explanations: Genetic - twin studies

A

Twin studies often show a higher concordance rate for criminality in MZ twins compared to DZ twins, suggesting that genes predispose offenders to commit crime

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19
Q

Biological explanations: genetic - what are the two genes that have been found to be linked to violent crimes (3)

A
  • MAOA and CDH13
  • MAOA - controls dopamine and serotonin. A mutant version of the gene, MAOA low, means it is unable to regulate dopamine and serotonin. This may be linked to impulsive behaviour, aggression and violent crimes. Only found to have an influence if linked to childhood maltreatment
  • CDH13 - involved in the communication between brain cells. Previously associated with substance abuse and ADHD
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20
Q

Biological explanations: Genetic - diathesis-stress model (2)

A
  • If genes have an influence on offending, this influence is likely to be at least partly moderated by environmental factors
  • The diathesis-stress model suggests that a tendency to offending behaviour is due to a combination of: genetic predisposition and a biological or psychological stressor e.g. criminal role models or dysfunctional upbringing
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21
Q

Biological explanations: neural - what do neural explanations consider?

A

How the structure and workings of the brain may be linked with criminal behaviour

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22
Q

Biological explanations: neural - Antisocial personality disorder (APD) (4)

A
  • The prefrontal cortex regulates emotional behaviour
  • People with APD have reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex
  • Struggle to process emotions and feel empathy
  • Many convicted offenders have a diagnosis of APD
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23
Q

Biological explanations: neural - mirror neurons (3)

A
  • Mirror neurons help us with empathy
  • Research has suggested that criminals can feel empathy but may have a neural ‘switch’ that turns on and off
  • In a normally-functioning brain the empathy switch is permanently on
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24
Q

Psychological explanations of offending behaviour: Eysenck’s theory - three personality dimensions (2)

A
  • Eysenck studied personality and said personality can be represented along three dimensions: introversion-extraversion (E), neuroticism-stability (N), psychoticism-sociability (P)
  • These dimensions combine to form different personality characteristics
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25
Q

Psychological explanations of offending behaviour: Eysenck’s theory - innate, biological basis for personality types (4)

A
  • Eysenck suggested personality types are innate and based on the nervous system we inherit
  • Extraverts have an underactive nervous system which means they seek excitement and engage in risk-taking
  • Neurotic people have a nervous system that responds quickly to stress, this means they are nervous, jumpy and overanxious so their behaviour is difficult to predict
  • Psychotic people have higher levels of testosterone - they are cold, unemotional and prone to aggression
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26
Q

Psychological explanations: Eysenck’s theory - what is the criminal personality type a combination of? (4)

A

The criminal personality type is a combination of extroversion, neuroticism and psychoticism
* Extraverts seek more arousal and thus engage in dangerous activities
* Neurotics are unstable and therefore prone to overreact to situations of threat
* Psychotics are aggressive and lacking empathy

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27
Q

Psychological explanations: Eysenck’s theory - describe how offending behaviour is concerned with immediate gratification (3)

A
  • Most people learn to delay gratification and become more socially aware as they get older
  • People with high N and E scores do not learn this as easily because of their nervous system
  • They are impatient and may act antisocially which explains their criminal behaviour
28
Q

Psychological explanations: Eysenck’s theory - describe the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) (2)

A
  • The notion that personality can be measured is central to Eysenck’s theory and useful in research
  • He developed the EPQ, a psychological test that locates respondents along the E, N and P dimensions to determine their personality type
29
Q

Psychological explanations: cognitive (level of moral reasoning) - level of moral reasoning background (2)

A
  • Kohlberg proposed that people’s decisions and judgments on issues of right and wrong can be summarised in a stage theory of moral reasoning - the higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning
  • As children get older their reasoning becomes more sophisticated
30
Q

Psychological explanations: cognitive (level of moral reasoning) - offenders at a lower level (3)

A
  • Kohlberg et al. (1973) used a moral dilemna technique and found offenders tend to be at the pre-conventional level, whereas non-offenders progress higher
  • Pre-conventional level is characterised by: a need to avoid punishment and gain rewards and less mature, childlike reasoning
  • Thus adults and adolescents who reason at this level may commit crime if they can get away with it or gain rewards e.g. money, respect
31
Q

Psychological explanations: cognitive (cognitive distortions) - what are cognitive distortions? (2)

A
  • Faulty, biased and irrational ways of thinking that mean we perceive ourselves, other people and the world inaccurately and usually negatively
  • The two main types of cognitive distortions attributed to criminality are hostile attribution bias and minimalisation
32
Q

Psychological explanations: cognitive (cognitive distortions) - what is hostile attribution bias? (2)

A
  • Misinterpreting the actions of others to be aggressive when they are not
  • This can trigger a violent response
33
Q

Psychological explanations: cognitive (cognitive distortions) - what is minimalisation? (2)

A
  • A type of deception that involves downplaying the significance of an event or emotion. A common strategy when dealing with feelings of guilt
  • For example, burglars may say that they were supporting their families as a way of minimising the seriousness of their actions and their sense of guilt
34
Q

Psychological explanations: differential association theory - what is the differential association theory? (2)

A
  • Through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for offending behaviour
  • The scientific emphasis of this theory suggests that it is possible to accurately predict the likelihood that an individual will become a criminal, based on their exposure to pro-criminal and anti-criminal attitudes
35
Q

Psychological explanations: differential association theory - describe how offending is acquired (3)

A
  • Offending behaviour is acquired through the process of learning
  • This learning occurs through interactions with significant others who the child values most and spends most time with, such as family and peer group
  • Offending arises from two factors - learned attitudes towards offending and learning of specific offending acts
36
Q

Psychological explanations: differential association theory - describe learned attitudes towards offending (3)

A
  • When a person is socialised into a group they will be exposed to certain values and attitudes
  • This includes values and attitudes toward the law - some of these will be pro-crime, some will be anti-crime
  • If the number of pro-crime attitudes the person comes to acquire outweighs the number of anti-crime attitudes, they will go on to offend
37
Q

Psychological explanations: differential association theory - describe learning of specific offending acts

A
  • Would-be offender may also learn particular techniques for committing offences
  • For example, how to break into someone’s house through a locked window
38
Q

Psychological explanations: differential association theory - mathematical prediction about committing offences (2)

A
  • It should be possible to mathematically predict how likely it is that an individual will commit offences
  • The prediction is based on our knowledge of the frequency, intensity and duration of an individual’s exposure to deviant and non-deviant norms and values
39
Q

Psychological explanations: differential association theory - reoffending (2)

A
  • Can account for why so many prisoners released from prison go on to reoffend
  • Whilst inside prison inmates will be exposed to pro-crime attitudes and also learn specific techniques of offending from more experienced offenders which they can put into practice upon their release
40
Q

Psychological explanations: psychodynamic - background (3)

A
  • We have unconscious conflicts that are rooted in early childhood. These drive behaviour, including criminal behaviour
  • The approach suggests that the Superego is guided by the morality principle leading to feelings of guilt for wrongdoing
  • If the Superego is inadequate (weak, deviant, or over-harsh) then the id is not properly controlled which can result in criminal behaviour
41
Q

Psychological explanations: psychodynamic - weak superego (2)

A
  • During the phallic stage the Superego is formed through the resolution of the Oedipus or electra complex
  • If the same-sex parent is absent during this stage a child cannot internalise a fully-formed Superego as there is no opportunity for identification. This would make offending behaviour more likely
42
Q

Psychological explanations: psychodynamic - deviant superego (2)

A
  • A child internalises the same-sex parent’s moral attitudes to form their Superegos
  • If these internalised moral attitudes are deviant this would lead to a deviant Superego and to offending behaviour
43
Q

Psychological explanations: psychodynamic - over-harsh Superego (2)

A
  • An overly critical same-sex parent creates a child who has an over-harsh Superego and the child is crippled by guilt and anxiety
  • This may unconsciously drive the individual to commit crimes to satisfy the Superego’s need for punishment
44
Q

Psychological explanations: psychodynamic - how is maternal deprivation involved in offending behaviour? (3)

A
  • Bowlby said that being able to form healthy adult relationships is dependent on forming a healthy relationship with a mother figure during childhood
  • If we do not develop this bond in childhood it will damage us later in life
  • Being separated from the mother during childhood is maternal deprivation and one result of it can be affectionless psychopathy and increased likelihood of delinquency
45
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: custodial sentencing - what are the 4 aims of custodial sentencing?

A
  • Deterrence
  • Incapacitation
  • Retribution
  • Rehabilitation
46
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: custodial sentencing - what is deterrence? (4)

A
  • Put people off from offending
  • Based on conditioning principles - punishment and vicarious punishment
    Deterrence works on two levels:
  • Individual deterrence - should prevent the individual from repeating the same offences in light of their experience
  • General deterrence - send a message to members of society that crime will not be tolerated
47
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: custodial sentencing - what is incapacitation? (2)

A
  • Ensures that the offender is taken out of society which protects the public from further offending
  • The need for incapacitation depends on the severity of the crime e.g. a murderer is more of a threat to society than someone illegally downloading music
48
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: custodial sentencing - what is retribution? (2)

A
  • Society enacting revenge by making the offender suffer
  • Level of suffering should be proportionate to the severity of the crime
49
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: custodial sentencing - rehabilitation (2)

A
  • Reform the offender, develop skills or go through training or drug programmes
  • An offender should leave prison a better person than they entered
50
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: custodial sentencing - what are the three psychological effects of custodial sentencing?

A
  • Stress and depression
  • Institutionalisation
  • Prisonisation
51
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: custodial sentencing - describe stress and depression (2)

A
  • Suicide and self-harm rates are higher in prison than general population
  • The stress of prison also increases the chance of psychological issues following release
52
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: custodial sentencing - describe institutionalisation

A

Inability to function outside of prison having adapted to the norms and routines of prison life

53
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: custodial sentencing - describe prisonisation

A

Behaviours unacceptable outside prison are encouraged via socialisation into an ‘inmate code’

54
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: custodial sentencing - recidivism (3)

A
  • Recidivism refers to reoffending. Recidivism rates in ex-prisoners tell us to what extent prison acts as an effective deterrent
  • Rates vary with age, crime committed and country. The US, Australia and Denmark record rates over 60%. In Norway rates may be as low as 20%
  • This last figure is significant because in Norway there is less emphasis on incarceration and greater emphasis on rehabilitation and skills development
55
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: behaviour modification - what is the token economy? (5)

A
  • Token economies - systems based
    upon operant conditioning principles, and mainly reinforcement
  • Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a desired behaviour being repeated. Selected socially-desirable behaviours are more likely to be repeated by offenders
  • Every time a desired behaviour is carried out by an offender (e.g. avoid confrontation, follow rules), receive a token. Secondary reinforcer - its value is derived from being able to be swapped for a ‘privilege’ or reward (primary reinforcer)
  • Rewards - phone calls, exercise, conjugal visits
  • Through positive reinforcement, offender more likely to repeat desirable behaviours as motivated by achieving the same reward each time
56
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: behaviour modification - operationalisation of target behaviours (3)

A
  • Operationalised by breaking them down into components parts e.g. ‘interaction with other prisoners’ = ‘speaking politely to others’. Each ‘unit’ of behaviour - objective and measurable and agreed with staff and prisoners in advance
  • Break down into increments and devise scoring system - e.g. tokens may be awarded directly or points may be awarded and converted to tokens
  • Prison staff must follow the same regime - if not consistent then is not effective
57
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: anger management - describe how cognitive factors trigger aggression (3)

A
  • Cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal that comes before aggressive acts
  • In some people, anger is quick to surface in situations they perceive to be threatening or anxiety-inducing
  • Becoming angry is then reinforced by the individual’s feeling of control in that situation
58
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: anger management - what are anger management programmes a form of?
An individual is taught to do what? (2)

A
  • Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT)
  • Recognise the cognitive factors that trigger their anger and loss of control and develop behavioural techniques that bring about conflict resolution without the need for violence
59
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: anger management - what are the three stages of anger management?

A
  • Cognitive preparation
  • Skills acquisition
  • Application practice
60
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: anger management - describe cognitive preparation (3)

A
  • The offender reflects on past experience
  • They learn to identify triggers to anger and the ways their interpretation of events may be irrational
  • Therapist attempts to break automatic responses (someone looking is seen as threatening and response is aggression)
61
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: anger management - describe skills acquisition (4)

A
  • Offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with anger-provoking situations
    Techniques may be:
  • Cognitive - positive self-talk to promote calmness
  • Behavioural - training how to communicate effectively
  • Physiological - relaxation techniques/meditation
62
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: anger management - describe application practice (4)

A
  • Offenders are given the opportunity to practise their skills in a carefully monitored environment
  • Role play - therapist and offender act out anger-provoking situations
  • Offender must treat the situation as real
  • If the offender deals successfully with the role play this is given positive reinforcement by the therapist
63
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: restorative justice - what happens in restorative justice?

A
  • Offenders come face-to-face with their victims
  • Offender can see the impact of their crime
  • Empowers victims and allows them to move on
64
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: restorative justice - Restorative justice is less about retribution (punishing the offender) and more about what? (3)

A
  • Reparation - repairing the harm caused
    RJ seeks to focus on two things:
  • The survivor of the crime and their recovery
  • The offender and their recovery/rehabilitation process
65
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: restorative justice - what are the key features of RJ? (4)

A
  • Face-to-face meeting or remotely via video link
  • Active rather than passive involvement of all parties
  • Non-courtroom setting where offender voluntarily meets with the survivor
  • Trained mediator supervises the meeting
66
Q

Dealing with offending behaviour: restorative justice - variations of the key features of RJ (3)

A
  • Not always face-to-face
  • Offender may give financial compensation
  • Offender may repair damaged property themselves
  • Can be an alternative to prison - an add-on to community service

Psychology (12 decks)

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