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Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the two major physiological systems that regulate behaviour in response to the environment?

A

The nervous system and the endocrine system

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2
Q

The nervous system - what is the nervous system?
What are its two main functions?
It is divided into what two subsystems?

A
  • A specialised network of cells and our primary communication system. It is based on electrical and chemical signals
  • To collect, process and respond to information in the environment and to co-ordinate the working of different organs and cells in the body
  • The central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
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3
Q

The nervous system - describe the structure and function of the central nervous system (3)

A
  • Made up of the brain and the spinal cord
  • The brain is the centre of conscious awareness. (add info about cerebral cortex) The brain is divided into 2 hemispheres
  • The spinal cord is an extension of the brain and is responsible for reflex actions. It passes messages to and from the brain and connects nerves to the PNS
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4
Q

The nervous system - describe the structure and function of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) (5)

A
  • It is the nervous system for the limbs and torso
  • It relays messages from the environment to the CNS, via sensory neurones, and from the CNS to effectors, via motor neurones
  • The PNS is further subdivided into the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the somatic nervous system (SNS)
  • ANS - governs vital functions in the body such as breathing, heart rate, digestion, sexual arousal and stress responses
  • SNS - governs muscle movement and receives information from sensory receptors
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5
Q

The endocrine system - describe the endocrine system (3)

A
  • System of glands and hormones
  • It works alongside the nervous system to control vital functions in the body through the action of hormones
  • It works more slowly than the nervous system (seconds instead of milliseconds)
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6
Q

The endocrine system - describe glands and give an example of one

A
  • They are organs in the body that produce hormones
  • The pituitary gland - located in the brain, it is called the ‘master gland’ because it controls when other glands secrete hormones
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7
Q

The endocrine system - describe the fight or flight response (4)

A
  • The endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system work together
  • If we perceive a stressor then the adrenal gland secretes the hormone, adrenaline, into the bloodstream and the sympathetic nervous system is activated
  • This causes the physiological changes necessary for the fight or flight response. This means the body is prepared to fight the challenge or run away from it
  • Once the threat has passed the parasympathetic nervous system brings the body back to its normal, resting state. This process is called rest and digest
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8
Q

The endocrine system - describe what the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems do

A
  • Sympathetic - increases heart rate and blood pressure, increases breathing rate, dilates pupils, inhibits digestion, inhibits saliva production, contracts rectum
  • Parasympathetic - decreases heart rate, decreases breathing rate, constricts pupils, stimulates digestion, stimulates saliva production, relaxes rectum
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9
Q

The structure and function of neurons - what are neurons? (2)

A
  • The basic building blocks of the nervous system, they process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals
  • There are hundreds of billions of neurons in the body
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10
Q

The structure and function of neurons - describe sensory neurons (3)

A
  • Carry messages from the PNS to the CNS
  • Long dendrites and short axons
  • Located in the PNS in clusters called ganglias
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11
Q

The structure and functions of neurons - describe relay neurons (3)

A
  • Connect sensory neurons to motor or other relay neurons
  • Short dendrites and short axons
  • Of all neurons, 97% are relay neurons and most are in the brain and visual system
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12
Q

The structure and function of neurons - describe motor neurons (3)

A
  • Connect the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands
  • Short dendrites and long axons
  • Cell bodies may be in the CNS but long axons form part of the PNS
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13
Q

The structure and function of neurons - describe the structure of a neuron (4)

A
  • Cell body (or soma) - includes a nucleus which contains the genetic material of the cell
  • Dendrites - branch-like structures, carry the impulse from other neurons to the cell body
  • Axon - carries the electrical impulse away from the cell body down the length of the neuron. It is covered in a fatty layer of myelin sheath that protects the axon. Gaps in the axon called nodes of Ranvier speed up the transmission of the impulse
  • Terminal buttons - at the end of the axon and they communicate with the next neuron in the chain across a gap called the synapse
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14
Q

The structure and function of neurons - describe electrical transmission
Resting state
Activated
This creates

A
  • When a neuron is in a resting state the inside of the cell is negatively charged compared to the outside
  • When a neuron is activated, the inside of the cell becomes positively charged for a split second causing an action potential to occur
  • This creates an electrical impulse that travels down the axon towards the end of the neuron
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15
Q

Synaptic transmission - describe synaptic transmission (5)
Neurons
Impulses
When
Neurotransmitters
When

A
  • Neurons are separated from each other by a gap called a synapse
  • Impulses must be transferred chemically across the synapse
  • When the impulse reaches the end of the neuron it triggers the release of a neurotransmitter from the synaptic vessels
  • Neurotransmitters are able to cross the synapse and bind to the receptor sites
  • When on the other side (the dendrite of the next neuron) the neurotransmitter is converted back into an electrical impulse
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16
Q

Synaptic transmission - what are neurotransmitters and give an example of one

A
  • Chemicals that diffuse across the synapse to the next neuron in the chain
  • Serotonin - affects mood and social behaviour, it has been implicated as a cause of depression
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17
Q

Synaptic transmission - what is excitation, inhibition and summation?

A

Neurotransmitters generally have either an excitatory or inhibitory effect on the neighbouring neuron
* Excitation - increasing the positive charge of a neuron which increases the likelihood of the next neuron firing (adrenaline)
* Inhibition - increases the negative charge of a neuron which decreases the likelihood of the next neuron firing (serotonin)
* Summation - a neuron can receive both positive and negative potentials, these are then summed to see what effect will be had

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18
Q

Localisation of function - describe the holistic theory and localisation theory (2)

A
  • Early theories assumed that all parts of the brain were involved in processing thought and action
  • Broca and Wernicke argued for localisation of function which is the idea that different parts of the brain perform different tasks and are involved with different parts of the body. If a certain part of the brain is damaged then functioning associated with that area will also be affected
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19
Q

Localisation of function - describe hemispheres (2)

A
  • The brain is divided into 2 hemispheres and lateralised
  • The left side of the body is controlled by the right hemisphere, the right side of the body by the left hemisphere
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20
Q

Localisation of function - describe the cerebral cortex (4)

A
  • The outer layer of the brain
  • 3mm thick
  • Grey and highly folded (so it can all fit inside the skull)
  • It is what separates us from lower animals as it is highly developed
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21
Q

Localisation of function - the cerebral cortex of both hemispheres is divided into what four lobes

A
  • Frontal
  • Parietal
  • Occipital
  • Temporal
22
Q

Localisation of function - describe the motor area, the somatosensory area, the visual area, and the auditory area

A
  • Motor area - at the back of the frontal lobe (both hemispheres). Controls voluntary movement. Damage may result in loss of control over fine motor movements
  • Somatosensory area - at the front of the parietal lobes. Processes sensory information from the skin. The amount of somatosensory area devoted to a particular body part denotes its sensitivity. If it is damaged you cannot feel things as much e.g. pain
  • Visual area - in the occipital lobe. Each eye sends information from the right visual field to the left visual cortex, and from the left visual field to the right visual cortex. If it is damaged you cannot see anything, misprocess things
  • Auditory area - in the temporal lobe. Analyses speech-based information. Damage may produce partial hearing loss - the more extensive the damage, the more serious the loss
23
Q

The language centres - describe Broca’s area (3)

A
  • In the left frontal lobe
  • Responsible for speech production
  • Damage to this area causes Broca’s aphasia which is characterised by speech that is slow, laborious and lacking in fluency. May have difficulty finding words and naming certain objects, and also have difficulty with prepositions and conjunctions (e.g. a, the, and)
24
Q

The language centres - describe Wernicke’s area (4)

A
  • In the left temporal lobe
  • Responsible for language comprehension
  • People with Wernicke’s aphasia produce language but have problems understanding it, so they produce fluent but meaningless speech
  • They will often produce nonsense words (neologisms) as part of the content of their speech
25
Q

Hemispheric lateralisation - what is hemispheric lateralisation?

A

The idea that the two halves (hemispheres) of the brain are functionally different and that certain mental processes and behaviours are mainly controlled by one hemisphere rather than the other e.g. language

26
Q

Describe plasticity (5)

A
  • The brain’s tendency to change and adapt as a result of experience and new learning. This generally involves the growth of new connections
  • During infancy, the brain experiences a rapid growth in synaptic connections, peaking at about 15,000 at age 2-3 years
  • As we age, rarely used connections are deleted and frequently-used connections are strengthened - synaptic pruning
  • It was once thought these changes were limited to childhood but recent research suggests neural connections can change or be formed at any time, due to learning and experiences
  • Plasticity can be negative - prolonged drug use leading to poorer cognitive functioning and old age is associated with dementia
27
Q

Functional recovery - what is functional recovery? (4)

A
  • Following physical injury or other forms of trauma such as infection/stroke parts of the brain may be damaged
  • Unaffected areas are sometimes able to adapt or compensate for those areas that are damaged
  • This functional recovery is an example of neural plasticity
  • This process occurs quickly after trauma (spontaneous recovery) and then slows down - at which point the person may require rehabilitative therapy
28
Q

Functional recovery - describe what happens during functional recovery (3)
The brain
Secondary neural pathways
This process

A
  • The brain rewires and reorganises itself by forming new synaptic connections close to the area of damage
  • Secondary neural pathways that would not typically be used to carry out certain functions are activated to enable functioning to continue
  • This process is supported by a number of structural changes - axonal sprouting, denervation supersensitivity, recruitment of homologous areas
29
Q

Functional recovery - what is axonal sprouting?

A

Growth of new nerve endings which connect with other undamaged cells to form new neuronal pathways

30
Q

Functional recovery - what is denervation supersensitivity?

A

Axons that do a similar job become aroused to a higher level to compensate for the ones that are lost

31
Q

Functional recovery - what is recruitment of homologous areas?

A

The opposite side of the brain takes over specific tasks e.g. language production

32
Q

Functional recovery - what are the factors affecting functional recovery? (6)

A
  • Exhaustion, alcohol consumption and stress - can affect the effort put in to recovery
  • Age - old age can mean the extent and speed of recovery is lessened
  • Gender - some research suggests women recover better than men because brain function is not as lateralised
  • Education - people who are more educated are more likely to recover
33
Q

Scanning and other techniques - techniques for investigating the brain are often used for what?
What is the purpose of scanning in psychological research?

A
  • Medical purposes in the diagnosis of illness
  • Often to investigate localisation - to determine which parts of the brain do what
34
Q

Scanning and other techniques - what is functioning magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)? (5)

A
  • Measures brain activity while the patient is performing a task
  • Looks at changes in blood oxygenation and flow
  • If part of the brain becomes more active it needs more oxygen so more blood is sent there
  • Produces a 3D image showing which parts of the brain are active and therefore must be involved in particular mental processes
  • Uses radio waves and a magnetic field
35
Q

Scanning and other techniques - what is Electroencephalogram (EEG)? (3)
EEG
The scan
Diagnostic tool

A
  • EEG measures electrical activity within the brain via electrodes using a skull cap
  • The scan shows brain activity
  • EEG is often used as a diagnostic tool. e.g. unusual arrhythmic patterns of brain activity may indicate abnormalities such as epilepsy, tumours or sleep disorders
36
Q

Scanning and other techniques - what are event-related potentials (ERPs)? (3)
Using data
Statistical
Brainwaves

A
  • Using data from an EEG but isolating responses related to specific behaviour/stimulus
  • Uses a statistical averaging technique to filter out all extraneous brain activity from the original EEG
  • Brainwaves triggered by something specific e.g. when presented with a certain stimulus
37
Q

Scanning and other techniques - what are post-mortem investigations? (3)

A
  • Analysis of a person’s brain following their death
  • Areas of the brain are examined to establish the likely cause of a deficit or disorder that the person experienced in life
  • This may also involve comparison with a neurotypical brain in order to assess the extent of the difference
38
Q

What are biological rhythms? (2)

A
  • Distinct patterns of changes in body activity that conform to cyclical time periods
  • They are influenced by internal body clocks (endogenous pacemakers) as well as external changes to the environment (exogenous zeitgebers)
39
Q

Biological rhythms - describe circadian rhythms

A

Biological rhythms, subject to a 24-hour cycle, which regulate a number of body processes such as the sleep/wake cycle

40
Q

Biological rhythms - what is an infradian rhythm?

A

A type of biological rhythm with a frequency of less than one cycle in 24 hours, such as menstruation and SAD

41
Q

Biological cycles: infradian rhythms - describe the menstrual cycle (5)
Cycle
Governed
Oestrogen
Progesterone
Absorbed

A
  • Each cycle takes approximately 28 days
  • Governed by monthly changes in hormone levels
  • Oestrogen levels rise - ovary releases egg
  • Progesterone causes the womb lining to thicken, readying the womb for pregnancy
  • If pregnancy does not occur the egg is absorbed into the body and the womb lining sheds
42
Q

Biological rhythms: infradian rhythms - describe seasonal affective disorder (SAD) (5)

A
  • Depressive disorder with a seasonal pattern
  • Symptoms are triggered during winter months when the number of daylight hours becomes shorter
  • During the night, the pineal gland secretes melatonin until dawn when there is an increase in light
  • In winter, less light means secretion goes on for longer
  • This has a knock-on effect on the production of serotonin in the brain (low serotonin is linked to depressive symptoms)
43
Q

Biological rhythms: ultradian rhythms - what are ultradian rhythms?

A

A type of biological rhythm with a frequency of more than one cycle in 24 hours, such as the sleep cycle

44
Q

Biological rhythms: ultradian rhythms - describe the sleep cycle (4)

A
  • Five stages, cycle spans 90 minutes and continues throughout the night, different level of brainwave activity for each stage
  • Stages 1 and 2 - light sleep, easily woken. Brain wave patterns slow and become more rhythmic, these are alpha waves
  • Stages 3 and 4 - even slower brain waves (delta), deep sleep (slow wave sleep), difficult to wake someone up
  • Stage 5 - REM (rapid eye movement), the body is paralysed yet brain activity closely resembles that of the awake brain. During this time, the brain produces theta waves and the eyes occasionally move around. Dreams most often occur during REM sleep, but may also occur in deep sleep
45
Q

What are endogenous pacemakers?

A

Internal body clocks that regulate many of our biological rhythms, such as the influence of the SCN on the sleep/wake cycle

46
Q

Endogenous pacemakers - describe the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) (3)
Tiny bundle
Receives information
Biological clock

A
  • A tiny bundle of nerve cells in the hypothalamus in each hemisphere which helps to maintain circadian rhythms e.g. sleep/wake cycle
  • It receives information about light (even when the eyes are shut) and it then influences how we feel
  • Allows our biological clock to adjust to changing patterns of daylight when we are asleep
47
Q

Endogenous pacemakers - describe the pineal gland (3)

A
  • The SCN passes information about light and day length to the pineal gland
  • Pineal gland increases production of melatonin (induces sleep) during the night
  • Causal factor in SAD
48
Q

What are exogenous zeitgebers?

A

External factors that affect or entrain our biological rhythms, such as the influence of light on the sleep/wake cycle

49
Q

Exogenous zeitgebers - what is entrainment?

A

Resetting biological clocks

50
Q

Exogenous zeitgebers - describe how light is a key exogenous zeitgeber that influences the sleep/wake cycle

A

Light can reset the body’s main endogenous pacemaker (SCN)

51
Q

Exogenous zeitgebers - describe how social cues have an important influence on the sleep/wake cycle (3)

A
  • Mealtimes and bedtimes can influence biological rhythms
  • 6 weeks old we start to develop sleep/wake cycle, by 16 weeks we are entrained to the circadian rhythm. Babies are not born with the sleep/wake cycle
  • Schedules imposed by parents are a key influence

Psychology (12 decks)

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