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Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the four definitions of abnormality?

A

Statistical infrequency
Deviation from social norms
Failure to function adequately
Deviation from ideal mental health

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2
Q

What is statistical infrequency and give an example of it

A

• Occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic
• E.g. Intellectual disability disorder - average IQ is 100. Most people have an IQ between 85 and 115, only 2% have a score below 70. Those individuals scoring below 70 are statistically abnormal and are diagnosed with IDD

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3
Q

What is deviation from social norms and give an example of it

A

• Concerns behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society
• E.g. antisocial personality disorder - failure to conform to ‘lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour’, deviating from social norms

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4
Q

Why are definitions of deviation from social norms related to cultural context?

A

There are relatively few behaviours that would be considered universally abnormal

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5
Q

What is failure to function adequately and give an example of it

A

• Occurs when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day-to-day living
• E.g. Intellectual disability disorder - people are unable to cope with the demands of everyday living

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6
Q

Failure to function adequately - what further signs of failure to cope did Rosenhan and Seligman (1989) propose? (3)

A

• They no longer conform to interpersonal rules
• They experience severe personal distress
• They behave in a way that is irrational or dangerous

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7
Q

What is deviation from ideal mental health?

A

Occurs when someone does not meet a set of criteria for good mental health

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8
Q

Deviation from ideal mental health- what is Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health? (8)

A

• no symptoms or distress
• rational and perceive ourselves accurately
• self-actualise
• cope with stress
• realistic view of the world
• good self-esteem and lack guilt
• independent of other people
• successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure

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9
Q

What is a phobia?

A

An irrational fear of an object or situation

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10
Q

What categories of phobias does the DSM recognise? (3)

A

• Specific phobia - phobia of an object or a situation
• Social phobia - phobia of a social situation
• Agoraphobia - phobia of being outside or in a public place

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11
Q

Behavioural characteristics of phobias - panic, avoidance, endurance (3)

A

• Panic - range of behaviours such as crying, screaming or running away from the phobic stimulus
• Avoidance - considerable effort to prevent contact with the phobic stimulus. This can make it hard to go about everyday life
• Endurance - involves remaining with the phobic stimulus and continuing to experience anxiety

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12
Q

Emotional characteristics of phobias - anxiety, fear, emotional response is unreasonable

A

• Anxiety - an unpleasant state of high arousal. Prevents relaxing, very difficult to experience positive emotion
• Fear - immediate response when we encounter or think about a phobic stimulus
• Emotional response is unreasonable - anxiety or fear is much greater than is ‘normal’ and disproportionate to any threat posed

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13
Q

Cognitive characteristics of phobias - selective attention to the phobic stimulus, irrational beliefs, cognitive distortions

A

• Selective attention to the phobic stimulus - finds it hard to look away from the phobic stimulus
• Irrational beliefs - may hold unfounded thoughts in relation to phobic stimuli
• Cognitive distortions - perceptions may be unrealistic and innaccurate

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14
Q

The behavioural approach to explaining phobias - what does the two-process model state? Mowrer (1960)

A

Phobias are learned by classical conditioning and then maintained by operant conditioning

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15
Q

The behavioural approach to explaining phobias - describe acquisition by classical conditioning (4)

A

• UCS (e.g. being bitten) creates a UCR of anxiety
• NS (e.g. dog) causes no response
• NS (e.g. dog) is associated with the UCS (e.g. being bitten) which creates a UCR of anxiety
• NS becomes a CS causing a CR of anxiety following the bite

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16
Q

The behavioural approach to explaining phobias - according to Mowrer, why are phobias often long-lasting?

A

Because of operant conditioning

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17
Q

The behavioural approach to explaining phobias - what is operant conditioning?

A

• A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences
• Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment

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18
Q

The behavioural approach to explaining phobias - what is negative reinforcement?

A

Avoiding something unpleasant when a behaviour is performed

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19
Q

The behavioural approach to explaining phobias - describe maintenance by operant conditioning (2)

A

• Avoiding a phobic stimulus - they escape the anxiety that would have been experienced
• This reduction in fear negatively reinforces the avoidance behaviour and the phobia is maintained

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20
Q

The behavioural approach to treating phobias - what is systematic desensitisation? (2)

A

• A behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through the principle of classical conditioning
• A new response to the phobic stimulus is learned, this learning of a different response is called counterconditioning

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21
Q

The behavioural approach to treating phobias - step 1 of systematic desensitisation - formation of an anxiety hierarchy (2)

A

• The client and the therapist design an anxiety hierarchy
• List of situations related to the phobic stimulus that cause anxiety arranged in order from least to most frightening

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22
Q

The behavioural approach to treating phobias - step 2 of systematic desensitisation - relaxation

A

Taught relaxation techniques such as deep breathing and/or meditation

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23
Q

Step 3 of systematic desensitisation - exposure (3)

A

• Patient works through the anxiety hierarchy
• At each level the patient is exposed to the phobic stimulus in a relaxed state
• This takes place over several sessions starting at the bottom of the hierarchy

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24
Q

The behavioural approach to treating phobias - what does flooding involve?

A

Exposing people with a phobia to their phobic stimulus without a gradual build-up

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25
Q

The behavioural approach to treating phobias - why does flooding treat phobic responses quickly?

A

Without the option of avoidance behaviour, the patient quickly learns that the phobic stimulus is harmless - extinction

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26
Q

The behavioural approach to treating phobias - why do patients who are going to be treated with flooding need to give informed consent?

A

It is an unpleasant experience and they must be fully prepared and know what to expect

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27
Q

What is depression?

A

A mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels

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28
Q

What are the 4 categories of depression and depressive disorders recognised by the DSM?

A

• Major depressive disorder - severe but often short-term depression
• Persistent depressive disorder - long-term or recurring depression
• Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder - childhood temper tantrums
• Premenstrual dysphoric disorder - disruption to mood prior to and/or during menstruation

29
Q

Behavioural characteristics of depression - activity levels, disruption to sleep and eating behaviour, aggression and self-harm

A

• Activity levels - reduced energy levels, lethargic. Sometimes opposite effect, psychomotor agitation, struggle to relax and may end up pacing up and down a room
• Disruption to sleep and eating behaviour - insomnia or hypersomnia, appetite and eating may increase or decrease weight gain or loss
• Aggression and self-harm - depression is associated with irritability and this may extend to aggression and self-harm

30
Q

Emotional characteristics of depression lowered mood, anger, lowered self-esteem

A

• Lowered mood - ‘worthless’ or ‘empty’
• Anger - can be directed at the self or others, such emotions can lead to aggressive or self-harming behaviour
• Lowered self-esteem - the person likes themselves less, even self-loathing

31
Q

Cognitive characteristics of depression - poor concentration, attention to the negative, absolutist thinking (3)

A

• Poor concentration - unable to stick to a task, or might find simple decision-making difficult
• Attention to the negative - bias towards focusing on negative aspects of current situations and recalling unhappy memories
• Absolutist thinking - ‘black-and-white thinking’, when a situation is unfortunate it is seen as an absolute disaster

32
Q

The cognitive approach to explaining depression - what sort of approach to explaining why some people are more vulnerable to depression did Beck (1967) take?

A

Cognitive

33
Q

The cognitive approach to explaining depression - Beck (1967) thought that a person’s what creates this vulnerability to depression?

A

Cognitions

34
Q

The cognitive approach to explaining depression Beck - what is faulty information processing? (2)

A

• Beck suggested that some people are more prone to depression because of faulty information processing
• When depressed people attend to the negative aspects of a situation and ignore positives, they also blow small problems out of proportion and think in ‘black-and-white’ terms

35
Q

The cognitive approach to explaining depression Beck - depressed people have a negative self-schema
describe negative self-schema (2)

A

• A schema is a ‘package’ of ideas and information developed through experience. We use schema to interpret the world
• So, if a person has a negative self-schema they interpret all information about themselves in a negative way

36
Q

The cognitive approach to explaining depression Beck - how does a person develop a dysfunctional view of themselves?

A

Because of three types of negative thinking that occur automatically. These three elements are called the negative triad

37
Q

Describe the three elements to the negative triad

A

• Negative view of the world
• Negative view of the future
• Negative view of the self

38
Q

The cognitive approach to explaining depression Ellis’s ABC model - What did Ellis (1962) suggest?

A

Depression arises from irrational thoughts

39
Q

The cognitive approach to explaining depression - Ellis used what to explain how irrational thoughts affect our behaviour and emotional state?

A

ABC model

40
Q

The cognitive approach to explaining depression - describe A of the ABC model

A

Activating event - we get depressed when we experience negative events e.g. ending a relationship

41
Q

The cognitive approach to explaining depression - describe B of the ABC model

A

• Beliefs - negative events trigger irrational beliefs, for example:
• Ellis called the belief that we must always succeed musterbation
• I-can’t stand-it-itis is the belief that it is a disaster when things do not go smoothly
• Utopianism is the belief that the world must always be fair and just

42
Q

The cognitive approach to explaining depression - describe C of the ABC model

A

Consequences - when an activating event triggers irrational beliefs there are emotional and behavioural consequences e.g. if you believe you must always succeed and then you fail at something, the consequence is depression

43
Q

The cognitive approach to treating depression - what is CBT?

A

A method for treating mental disorders based on both cognitive and behavioural techniques. Cognitive - challenge negative, irrational thoughts. Behaviour - change behaviour so it is more effective

44
Q

Outline cognitive behaviour therapy as a treatment for depression (3)

A

• Starts with identifying irrational thoughts
• These irrational thoughts are challenged using empirical/logical evidence
• Clients are encouraged to test the reality of their irrational beliefs. They might be set homework to do after the session - ‘client as the scientist’

45
Q

Describe Beck’s cognitive therapy (3)

A

• The aim is to identify negative thoughts about the self, the world and the future - the negative triad
• These thoughts must be challenged by the client taking an active role in their treatment
• Clients are encouraged to test the reality of their irrational beliefs. They might be set homework to do after the session - ‘client as the scientist’

46
Q

The cognitive approach to treating depression - what does Ellis’s rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) extend the ABC model to?

A

ABCDE model - D for disputing irrational beliefs and E for the effect of disputing

47
Q

The cognitive approach to treating depression - what is the ABCDE model?

A

Extends Ellis’s explanation of depression (ABC model) to a therapy - D stands for disputing irrational thoughts and E for the effect of disputing

48
Q

The cognitive approach to treating depression - describe the process of REBT (Ellis) (2)

A

• Irrational thoughts (which could relate to utopianism, musterbation etc) are identified and disputed
• This would involve a vigorous argument - empirical argument: disputing whether there is actual evidence to support the negative belief. Logical argument: disputing whether the negative thought logically follows the facts

49
Q

The cognitive approach to treating depression - what is behavioural activation?

A

A therapy for depression focusing on encouraging individuals to engage in those activities they are avoiding. The goal is to increase environmental intervention

50
Q

What is obsessive compulsive disorder?

A

A condition characterised by obsessions and/or compulsive behaviour

51
Q

What are the DSM-5 categories of OCD? (4)

A

•OCD
•Trichotillomania - compulsive hair-pulling
•Hoarding disorder - the compulsive gathering of possessions and the inability to part with anything, regardless of its value
•Excoriation disorder - compulsive skin-picking

52
Q

Behavioural characteristics of OCD - compulsive behaviours, avoidance

A

•Compulsive behaviours - they are actions that are carried out repeatedly in a ritualistic way to reduce anxiety, anxiety may be created by obsessions, or just anxiety alone
•Avoidance - avoid a situation that might exacerbate their compulsions and this can affect their ability to lead a normal life

53
Q

Emotional characteristics of OCD - anxiety and distress, accompanying depression, guilt and disgust

A

• Anxiety and distress - obsessive thoughts are unpleasant and frightening, and the anxiety that goes with these can be overwhelming
•Accompanying depression - low mood and a lack of enjoyment
• Guilt and disgust - irrational guilt or disgust which is directed towards oneself or something external like dirt

54
Q

Cognitive characteristics of obsessive-compulsive disorder - obsessive thoughts, cognitive coping strategies, insight into excessive anxiety

A

• Obsessive thoughts - recurring intrusive thoughts
• Cognitive coping strategies - some people with OCD use strategies to cope e.g. meditation
• Insight into excessive anxiety - awareness that thoughts and behaviour are irrational. May have catastrophic thoughts and be hypervigilant

55
Q

The biological approach to explaining OCD -Genetic explanations
What are the genes called that scientists have identified which create vulnerability for OCD?
Give 2 examples of these types of genes

A

Candidate genes
• Serotonin genes are implicated in the transmission of serotonin across synapses
• Dopamine genes are implicated in OCD and may regulate mood

56
Q

The biological approach to explaining OCD -Genetic explanations - What does it mean by OCD seeming to be polygenic?

A

It is not caused by one single gene but by a combination of genetic variations that together significantly increase vulnerability

57
Q

The biological approach to explaining OCD -Genetic explanations - There is evidence to suggest that different types of OCD may be the result of what?

A

Particular genetic variations e.g. hoarding disorder and religious obsession

58
Q

The biological approach to explaining OCD - Neural explanations - what are the genes associated with OCD likely to affect? (2)

A

• The levels of key neurotransmitters
• Structures of the brain

59
Q

The biological approach to explaining OCD - Neural explanations - why might low levels of serotonin cause OCD? (2)
Neurotransmitters
Normal-transmission

A

• Neurotransmitters are responsible for relaying information from one neuron to another
• If a person has low levels of serotonin then normal transmission of mood-relevant information does not take place and mood is affected

60
Q

The biological approach to explaining OCD - Neural explanations for OCD - How might the frontal lobes be involved in OCD?

A

They are parts of the brain involved in decision-making and logical thinking, therefore abnormal functioning of the frontal lobes may cause OCD

61
Q

The biological approach to explaining OCD - Neural explanations for OCD - how might the left parahippocampal gyrus be involved in OCD?

A

There is evidence to suggest that the left parahippocampal gyrus, associated with processing unpleasant emotions, functions abnormally in OCD

62
Q

The biological approach to treating OCD - what does drug therapy for mental disorders aim to do?

A

Increase or decrease levels of neurotransmitters in the brain to increase/decrease their activity

63
Q

The biological approach to treating OCD - what do drugs that treat OCD do?

A

Work in various ways to increase the level of serotonin in the brain

64
Q

The biological approach to treating OCD - what do SSRIs do? (3)
Prevent
This increases
This compensates

A

• Prevent the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin in the brain
• This increases its levels in the synapse and thus serotonin continues to stimulate the postsynaptic neuron
• This compensates for what is wrong with the serotonin system in OCD

65
Q

Describe the dosage of SSRIs (4)
Varies
Fluoxetine
Available
Takes

A

• Dosage varies according to which SSRI is prescribed
• E.g. typical daily dose of fluoxetine is 20mg although this may be increased if it is not benefitting the person
• The drug is available as capsules or liquid
• It takes 3-4 months of daily dosage to have an impact on symptoms

66
Q

What are drugs often used alongside to treat OCD?
What do drugs do that allow people to engage more effectively with CBT?

A

Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT)
They reduce a person’s emotional symptoms, such as feeling anxious or depressed

67
Q

If SSRIs are not effective after 3-4 months, what happens?

A

The dose can be increased or it can be combined with other drugs

68
Q

Describe the 2 alternatives to SSRIs

A

• Tricyclics - an older type of antidepressant, e.g. Clomipramine, have the same effect on the serotonin system as SSRIs but the side-effects can be more severe, only used if someone doesn’t respond to SSRIs
• SNRIs - for people who don’t respond to SSRIs, increase serotonin and another neurotransmitter - noradrenaline

Psychology (12 decks)

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