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Psychology Paper 1 > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Falsifiability

A

The possibility that a statement or hypothesis can be proved wrong via testing

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2
Q

Objectivity

A

Measurement of data is not affected by researcher expectations
Objectivity means reducing individual differences to make it more scientific

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3
Q

Replicability

A

Recording procedures carefully for another researcher to repeat and verify the original results, increasing validity of findings

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4
Q

Empirical methods

A

Methods which rely on direct observation or testing, like brain scans or blood tests

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5
Q

Paradigm

A

A shared set of assumptions about a subject matter of a discipline and the methods appropriate to its study

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6
Q

Paradigm Shift

A

Scientific revolution where the accepted paradigm is questioned and this gains popularity to the point the contradictory evidence becomes a new, more dominant approach

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7
Q

Steps of induction (theory construction) OHSCT

A

Observations
Testable hypothesis
Conduct a study
Draw conclusions
Propose a theory

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8
Q

Steps of deduction (theory construction) OTHSC

A

Observations
Propose theory
Testable hypothesis
Conduct a study
Draw conclusions

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9
Q

How should a hypothesis be tested?

A

Using systematic and objective methods to determine support or rejection

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10
Q

Experimental methods:

A

Lab
Field
Natural
Quasi

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11
Q

Lab experiment

A

Uses a carefully controlled setting and standardised procedure to measure how the IV affects the DV
The participants are aware they are in it but may not know the aims

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12
Q

Lab experiments Strengths

A

Greater control over variables
Easily replicable so results can be tested and compared
Standardised procedure increases internal validity

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13
Q

Lab experiments Weaknesses

A

Demand characteristics- when participants figure out the aims they can alter behaviour
Artificial environment lacks ecological validity

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14
Q

Field experiement

A

Uses control of lab experiments but in real-world settings. The IV is still deliberately manipulated and the DV measured
Usually participants unaware

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15
Q

Field experiment
Strengths

A

High ecological validity due to being in real-life settings
Reduced chance of demand characteristics- naturally environment=more natural behaviour

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16
Q

Field experiment weaknesses

A

Less control as it is harder to manipulate the IV and record the DV
Ethical problems- participants may be unaware they are observed
No controls so more difficult to replicate

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17
Q

Natural experiment

A

Study of a naturally occurring situation, no influence over the situation but observes individuals and circumstances

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18
Q

Natural experiment advantages

A

High ecological validity- natural settings, high relativity to real life behaviour
Less chance of demand characteristics- less likely to adjust behaviour as they are unknowingly being observed

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19
Q

Natural experiments disadvantages

A

Ethical issues- participants may be unaware they are participating in the study(deception)
No control over extraneous variable so affect of IV are not always clear

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20
Q

Quasi experiments

A

Naturally occurring IV, e.g. gender, age, disorder, control (DV still measured)

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21
Q

Quasi experiments
Advantages

A

Allows for comparison between types of people- no manipulation is carried out but results show differences
Can be done in lab- DV tested in a lab so high control/ replicability

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22
Q

Quasi experiments
Disadvantages

A

lab setting- low ecological validity
lack of random allocation-participants cant be randomly allocated so there may be confounding variables

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23
Q

Experiments demonstrate what

A

Cause and effect

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24
Q

Independent variable

A

Variable that is manipulated

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25
Q

Dependent variable

A

Variable that is measured

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26
Q

Operationalisation

A

Process of making an abstract construct/variable to something measurable

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27
Q

Extraneous variables

A

Anything other than the IV that affects the DV. These variables can be controlled by the experimenter

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28
Q

Confounding variables

A

Variables that aren’t controlled and affect the results

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29
Q

Research aims

A

Stated intentions of what questions are planned to be answered

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30
Q

Hypothesis

A

A formal, unambiguous statement of what is predicted

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31
Q

Main features of a hypothesis

A

Contains conditions of the IV and expected DV outcome
Be operationalised and measurable

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32
Q

Directional hypothesis

A

States whether the DV outcome is expected to be greater or lesser, positive or negative
e.g group A, who used a mnemonic will score significantly higher than group B who didnt

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33
Q

Non-directional hypothesis

A

Doesnt state the direction of the DV, just that there is a difference
e.g. there is a significant difference between the scores from group A and group B

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34
Q

Null hypothesis

A

A prediction of no difference between the two IV conditions on the outcome of the DV

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35
Q

Reliability is…

A

consistency

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36
Q

Internal reliability

A

each person in a study is treated the same way

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37
Q

External reliability

A

Same/similar results found after repeated test

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38
Q

Test-retest reliability

A

Test the same person twice
same sample, same test, ensure a time gap

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39
Q

Inter-observer reliability

A

Compares observations from different observers- reduces bias

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40
Q

Correlational reliability

A

should exceed +80 on Pearsons correlation coefficient which tells us if IV has enough influence

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41
Q

Validity is….

A

Accuracy/ representativeness

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42
Q

Internal validity

A

is it measuring what its meant to measure?

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43
Q

External validity

A

is it generalisable beyond the experimental setting?

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44
Q

Ecological validity
Population validity
Temporal validity

A

Realistic setting?
Applicable sample?
Does it stand “the test of time”?

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45
Q

Face validity

A

Surface level, does it look like it measures what it should?

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46
Q

Concurrent validity

A

Are findings similar to those on a well established test
2 tests correlating similarly as a check of accuracy

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47
Q

3 ways to improve validity

A

Representative sample
Larger sample size
Realistic setting

48
Q

Independent groups

A

Two groups exposed to different conditions
Random allocation and the DV is measured for each and compared

49
Q

Independent groups advantages

A

No order effects
Data collection is easier and faster

50
Q

Independent groups disadvantages

A

Finding different participants- 2x
Risk of individual differences affecting

51
Q

Repeated measures

A

One group takes part in each condition then compare results

52
Q

Repeated measures advantages

A

Controlled variables- same group of pp
Fewer people- economic advantage

53
Q

Repeated measures disadvtanges

A

Order effects- boredom fatigue from repeats
Demand characteristics

54
Q

Matched pairs

A

Recruit and group based on relevant characteristics then treat like independent variables

55
Q

Matched pairs advantages

A

Reduces participant variables
Less order effects- one condition

56
Q

Matched pairs disadvantages

A

Time-consuming matching
Less economical especially with a pre test

57
Q

Demand characteristics

A

Cues that might indicate study aims to pp and cause change in behaviour

58
Q

Investigator effects

A

When a researcher unconsciously influences the outcome of research

59
Q

Single blind
Double blind

A

Participants are not aware
Participants and experimenters both not aware

60
Q

Control group

A

A group in which a variable is not being tested

61
Q

Confederate

A

A secret participant which makes the cover story more real and capture naive reactions

62
Q

Randomisation
Standardisation

A

Randomly assigning subjects to many potential influences that cant be controlled
Keeping everything the same= fair

63
Q

Pilot study: what, why, advantages

A

Small study to test research protocols, strategies, data collection instruments in prep for a large study
Why: tests aspects for a larger indepth investigation
Adv: identify potential problems and fix, avoids time/resource wasting

64
Q

Opportunity sampling

A

Participants selected based on availability

65
Q

Opportunity sampling
Advantages and disadvantages

A

+ Fastest way, reduces time and costs
- researcher bias(select participants for desired result)
-unrepresentative(easy access)

66
Q

Random sampling

A

Eaxh sample has an equal chance of being selected

67
Q

Random sampling
Advantages and disadvantages

A

+Avoids researccher bias
+easy way of sampling
-unrepresentative of all minority groups
-difficult and time consuming

68
Q

Stratified sampling

A

Dividing subjects into subgroups/strata based on shared characteristics

69
Q

Stratified sampling
Advantages and disadvantages

A

+Representative of target pop
+Random chosen within each stratum
-Not every characteristic will be represented
-Time consuming to establish strata then select

70
Q

Systematic sampling

A

Select participants of the population at regular intervals

71
Q

Systematic sampling
Advantages and disadvantages

A

+Avoids researcher bias
+If list already exists of targets=quick
-Unrepresentative sample
-Big target pop, too hard

72
Q

Volunteer sampling

A

Researchers seek volunteers to participate

73
Q

Volunteer sampling
Advantages and disadvantages

A

Easy sample to collect-self presented
Reach a large no of potential participants
Generalisability to target population?- Volunteers have diff characteristics
Volunteer bias- friendlier, more freetime

74
Q

informed consent

A

permission to use participant data and selves, should be informed on anything that could affect willingness
could also be parental consent if the child is too young

75
Q

dealing with informed consent when its broken

A

retrospective- gives consent for data use after debrief
presumptive- similar group is assumed
prior general- give permission to take part where they may be deceived

76
Q

informed consent right to withdraw

A

have to have it and tell if you use any of the above methods

77
Q

deception

A

no lies but sometimes it is avoidable to keep pps naivety
cost benefit analysis should be used to decide if its acceptable

78
Q

dealing with deception if broken

A

pps receive an immediate debrief in full detail

79
Q

protection from harm

A

risk or stress
protection from extremely damaging to physical or psychological state

80
Q

protection from harm dealing

A

debrief
right to withdraw
counselling

81
Q

what should be in a consent farm

A

info about the study- aim and procedure
right to withdraw
confidentiality
opportunity to ask questions
statement for them to sign

82
Q

written debrief form

A

thanks and explain the purpose of the study and predictions
remind of confidentiality and if decepton is used explain why
suggest counselling if necessary and right to withdraw
inform if they want any info about results they should contact and ask them to not talk about it when its still running
and provide names if anyone wishes to contact

83
Q

qualitative data

A

data representing non numerical info, language associated

84
Q

qual data collection

A

interviews
diaries
lab notebooks
questionnaires

85
Q

qual data adv and disadv

A

+more detailed to explain human complexity
descriptive nature allows more analysis
-time consuming
harder to analyse as categorising is harder

86
Q

quantitative data

A

data from measures of values, expressed as numers

87
Q

quant data collection

A

experiments
surveys
polls
probability sampling

88
Q

quant data adv and disadv

A

+easy analysis
consistency due to its objectivity
-difficult to explain complex issues
hard to analysis correlation

89
Q

primary data

A

original data from researchers own research

90
Q

primary data evaluation

A

+accuracy
reliability
- lost and time consuming
researcher bias

91
Q

secondary data

A

info collected and available for use by researchers who did not create it themselves

92
Q

secondary data evaluation

A

time efficent- analysis is quicker and cheaper
- lack of accuracy- incomplete or inaccurate data
not up to date- lack of applicability

93
Q

nominal data

A

qualititave values, usually tallied
eg. age, ethnicity

94
Q

ordinal data

A

scaled/ ordered data, subjective ratings usually 1-5
scales, ranking

95
Q

interval data

A

ranked data with equal intervals and units
eg. temperature, precipitation, time

96
Q

ratio data

A

same as interval but with an absolute zero/baseline
eg. distance, weight, cash

97
Q

measure of central tendency

A

how sets of results are measured and analysed
eg. mean, mode, median

98
Q

measure if dispersion

A

how spread out the data is in a set of results
eg. range, semi interquartile range, standard deviation

99
Q

mean corresponds with which data type

A

interval/ratio

100
Q

mode coresponds with which data type

A

nominal

101
Q

median corresponds with which data type

A

ordinal

102
Q

normal distribution

A

naturally occuring symmetrical bell curve
more in middle few on side
68% on one side of standard deviation, 95% within 2 SD of mean

103
Q

negatively skewed distribution

A

more at the higher end, outliers at the lower endp

104
Q

positively skewed distribution

A

more scores at the lower end, outliers at the higher end

105
Q

probability

A

how likely something is to happen between 0 and 1

106
Q

conventional use of p<0.05 significance level

A

likelihood of behaviour happening is equal or less than 5%
any higher= significance
lower= hard to achieve, only needed for medical research

107
Q

challenging other research

A

psychologists adapt more stringent significace levels, 0.02/0.01

108
Q

proof

A

does not exist in psychology research unless 100% accuracy is found, 0.05 is enough to show support

109
Q

type one error

A

belief that significant difference/correlation is found but it doesnt exist

110
Q

type two error

A

belief that no significant difference/correlation is found but there is one

111
Q

avoiding type 1 or 2 errors

A

stringency, increasing the sample size

112
Q

inferential statistics

A

stat test is done to determine whether a difference found in results is statistically significant and not by chance

113
Q

when to use a sign test

A

nominal data
checking for differences
repeated measures experimental design
matched pairs experimental design

114
Q

how to calculate sign test

A

state null and alternative hypothesis
represent each pair of data with plus of minus to work out S value
look up critical value of S by knowing N and whether it is two tailed or one tailed
compare critical t compared- if calculated is equal or less than value is significant

115
Q

what do formal writeups always include

A

title
abstract-summary paragraphs
introduction- backgrounds and hypothesis aim
method-designs, participants, materials
results- data types of stats, tests done for significance
discussion- analysis of data, support of hypothesis
references
appendices- forms, stats

Psychology Paper 1 (10 decks)

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