research methods Flashcards
dependent variable
variable that is measured by the researcher
independent variable
measures the effect of this change on the DV
directional hypothesis
researcher makes clear the sort of difference between 2 condition or 2 groups of people
non-directional hypothesis
there is a difference between 2 condition or 2 groups of people but not specified.
operationalisation
being more specific
Extraneous variable
in an experiment an IV is manipulated to see how this effects the DV.
Any variable other then IV that effects the DV.
These additionn and unwatedx variables should be removed
confounding variables
Its kinda of an Extraneous variable that varies systematically with IV.
So we cant tell if the change in the DV is because of the IV or the compounding variable
demand characteristic
any cue of the researcher or research situation may give which makes the participent feel like they can guess the aim of the situation
investigator effect
An unwanted influence of the researcher’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the DV measured.
randomisation
use of chance to reduce the effects of bias from investigator effect
standardisation
using the exact same formalised procedure and instruction for every single participant involved on the research process
What are the 4 types of experiment
1) Laboratory
2) Field
3) Quasi
4) Natural
Laboratory
are conducted in highly controlled environment. Does not need to be a lab, it could also be a bed but highly controlled
strengths of laboratory
1) high degree of control - control over confounding and extraneous variables - therefore can establish cause + effect - high internal validity
2) replication - researcher can repeat experiment due to high lvls of control. so can increase reliability
limitations of laboratory
Low ecological validity - high degree of control makes the situational artificial. - lacks mundane realism
Lacks generalisability
- lab artifical and not like everyday life
- lacks external validity
Due conducting in a lab
- participants may not know what the experiment is but would know that they are being tested, so may change their behaviour - demand characteristic
field
in more of a natural environment and not in a lab but variables are still being controlled
strength of field
1) High ecological validity as it is more natural - more mundane realism
2) controlled IV
limitation of field
have no control over extraneous variables and confounding variables therefore cause and effect between IV and DV are more difficult to establish.
Ethical issue - If participants don’t know that they are being involved in a study, they can not consent to being in a study and might constitute an invasion of study
quasi
is based on an existing difference between ppl. No one manipulates the DV and IV cannot change
strength of quasi
controlled condition - replicable. These strengths are similar to lab
limitations of quasi
confounding variables presented making it harder to conclude that the IV caused DV
IV is not deliberately changed by the researcher and therefore we cannot claim that the IV has caused any observed change
natural
Researcher measures the effect of IV on DV, however researcher has no control over the IV and cannot change it.
IV has to be natural and not actually the setting
strengths of natural
high external validity as they involve they study of real world issues or problems as they happen
limitation of natural
natural occurring events so not able to replicate
confounding and extraneous variables become a problem
lack realism
Demand characteristic
Experimental design
Independant group design
Repeated measures design
Matched pair design
independant group design
when 2 seperate groups of participants experience 2 different conditions of the experiment. The performance of the 2 groups would be compared.
imitation: the difference would be the groups on the DV, this may be be more to do with participant variable that the effects of the IV. So the difference may act as a confounding variable. To deal with the random allocation.
Limitation:less economical than repeated measure as twice as twice as many participant would be needed so therefore increase time and money.
Strength: Order effects as participents are less likely to guess the aims
Repeated measures design
same participants are used in all conditions of an experiment
limitation:
Order Effects: Participants are exposed to more than one condition, which could lead to order effects, such as practice effects (where participants improve simply by repeating the task) or fatigue effects (where performance declines due to tiredness).
Solution: This can be addressed by counterbalancing, which is when the order of conditions is varied for different participants to balance out any potential order effects.
Demand Characteristics: Participants may figure out the aim of the experiment because they are exposed to all conditions.
strength:
Participant Variables Controlled: Since the same participants are used in all conditions, individual differences (like age, gender, intelligence) between participants are controlled, reducing the impact of these variables on the results.
Fewer Participants Needed: Because the same group of participants is used for all conditions, fewer participants are required compared to an independent groups design (where separate groups are used for each condition). - cheaper and less time consuming
matched paired design
where different participants are used in each condition, but the participants are paired based on certain characteristics (e.g., age, gender, intelligence). The aim is to match participants as closely as possible so that individual differences are minimised across conditions.
limitation:
Matching Is Difficult and Time-Consuming: Finding pairs of participants who are closely matched on all relevant characteristics can be very difficult and time-consuming. In some cases, it may not even be possible to find perfect matches.
Still Vulnerable to Participant Variables: While matching reduces participant variables, it doesn’t eliminate them completely. If important variables aren’t matched properly, there may still be differences between the groups.
strengths:
Reduces Participant Variables: By matching participants based on key characteristics, it controls for individual differences (like age, intelligence, or experience) that might affect the results. This makes the comparison between conditions more reliable.
No Order Effects: Since participants are only exposed to one condition, there are no order effects (like practice or fatigue effects), which can be an issue in repeated measures designs.
population sample
it is usually impossible to include all members of a target population so the population sample will representative of the target population.
Sampling techniques:
- random sampling
- systematic sampling
- stratified sampling
- opportunity sampling
- volunteer sampling
random sampling
all the target population have an equal chance of being selected.
- contain a list of the names
- assign numbers to these
- selected these using a lottery method such as picking from a hat.
- unbiased
- difficult and time consuming as complete list of target population may be extremely difficult to obtain
systematic sampling
Every nth member of the target population is selected.
sampling frame - it is when there is a list of pp; in the target population organised.
- researcher has no influence over who is chosen
- time consuming and participants may refuse to take part, resulting in volunteer sample
stratified sampling
a type of probability sampling technique where the population is divided into subgroups, known as strata, based on specific characteristics (such as age, gender, ethnicity, etc.). Then, participants are randomly selected from each subgroup in proportion to the size of the subgroup in the population.
- generalisation of finding becomes possible due to representative sample
- identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different, so complete representation of the target population
opportunity sampling
anyone willing and available. researcher takes the chance to ask whoever is around at the time of their study.
- less costly in terms of time and money
- 2 form of bias: sample is unrepresentative of the population, researcher has complete control over the selection of participants and may avoid people that they do not like the look of
volunteer sampling
involves participants selecting themselves as part of the sample.
- requires minimum input from researcher
- less time consuming
volunteer bias
- asking for volunteers attract a certain profile of person, who is trying to please the researcher
Ethical issue
Can Do Can’t do With participant
C - informed consent - particpants to know the aim of the research, so the particpants need to be provided with consent letter or form regarding all detail
D - debrief - aware of the true aims
C - confidentiality - right of privacy, record no personal detail, use particpant using numbers/initials, particpent are reminded that their data will be protected
D - deception - deliberately misleading or witholding info from participant
W - right to wthdraw - Individuals have the right to choose to participate or not
P - psychological harm - particpant should not be placed at anymore risk than they would in their daily lives., to got councelling
pilot studies
a small scale trial run on the actual investigation. involves a handful of participants rather thn the total participants
single blind procedure
The participant will not be told the aim of the research. This is to control the confounding effects of demand characteristics
double blind procedure
neither the participant nor the researcher will know the aim of the investigation so therefore expectations cannot influence participant behaviour
Types of observation studies with evaluations
- Naturalistic
- Controlled
- Overt
- Covert
- participant
- Non participant
Evaluation:
+ Observations of behaviour has the benefit of capturing people what they actually do, which may be an unexpected behaviour. So observational methods are useful as they give insights into behaviour.
- One limitation of observation is observer bias. The observer’s interpretation of a situation may be affected by their experience. This may be reduced by using more than one observer.
Naturalistic observation
- Evaluations
Controlled observation
- Evaluations
takes place in a setting where the target behaviour would usually occur.
Evaluation:
+ tends to have high exterrnal validity as findings can be generalised to everyday life as the behaviour is studied within the environment where it would normally occur.
- Lack of control over the research studies makes replication of this investigation difficult. And also there may be many uncontrolled confounding and extraneous variables that make it more difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour
useful to control some aspects of the research situation. control over variables such as confounding and extraneous variables
Evaluation:
+ Confounding and Extraneous variables may be less of factor so replication of the observation becomes easier.
_May produce findings that cane be produced as as readily applied to everyday life.
- Overt
- Evaluations
- Covert
- Evaluations
Participant behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent
+more ethically acceptable as some behaviours may be their own private business
- the knowledge participants have that they are being observed may act as a significant influence on their behaviour
Participant behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent
+ may reduce the problem of demand characteristics and ensures any behaviour observed will be natural so increases internal validity
- ethics of this study may be questioned as people may not wish to have their behaviour noted down (right to privacy)
participant
- Evaluations
non participant
- Evaluations
the researchers becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he or she is watching and recording
+ reseracher can experience the situation as the participants do, giving them increased insight into the lives of the people being studied. This may increase external validity of the findings
- research may come to identify too strongly with those they are studying and lose objectivity. The line between being a researcher and being a participant becomes blurred.
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he or she is watching
+ maintain an objective psychological distance from their participant so less danger of adopting a local lifestyle
- may lose valuable insights to be gained in a participant observations as they are too far removed from the people and behaviour they are studying.
