Psychopathology Flashcards
what are the 4 types of abnormalities
Statistical infrequency
Deviation from social norms
Failure to sunction adequately
Deviation from ideal mental health
Statistical infrequency
To define anything as normal or abnormal is according to how often we come across it.
Example is !Q. Majority of the people’s score will cluster around the average, and the further we go above or below that average, the fewer people will attain that score. This is called normal distribution
Evaluation for Statistical infrequency
Statistical Infrequency provides a clear, quantitative method to identify abnormal behaviour based on data. It focuses on how often a behaviour occurs in the general population, making it an objective approach compared to subjective definitions of abnormality.
Simple and Clear:
The concept is easy to understand and apply. It is based on the frequency of behaviours in a population, making it accessible and relatively straightforward for students and practitioners alike.
Ignores Desirability of Behaviour:
Statistical Infrequency doesn’t distinguish between behaviours that are rare but positive (e.g., high intelligence, exceptional talent) and behaviours that are rare but negative (e.g., mental illness). Just because a behaviour is infrequent doesn’t necessarily mean it is abnormal or harmful.
Cultural and Contextual Issues:
What is considered statistically infrequent may vary significantly across different cultures or societies. For example, behaviours viewed as abnormal in one culture might be seen as normal in another, making the definition less universally applicable.
Deviation from social norms
When a person behaves in a way that is different from how we expect ppl to behave is known as deviation from social norms. We are making a collective judgement as a society about what is right.
Social norms are may be diff for each generation and different in every culture
Evaluation for Deviation from social norms
Considers Social Context:
This definition takes into account the context in which a behaviour occurs, which is important in understanding abnormality. It acknowledges that behaviour that deviates from societal expectations may be abnormal in one setting but not in another (e.g. behaviours that are considered acceptable in one culture may be considered abnormal in another).
Fails to Consider Individual Differences:
The model does not take into account individual differences in personality, values, or life experiences. A person who deviates from social norms may not necessarily be abnormal, and their behaviour may be a personal choice or expression rather than a mental health issue. This definition may unfairly pathologise people who simply have unique ways of living or thinking.
Failure to function adequately
A person may cross the line between normal and abnormal at the point when they can no longer cope with the demands of everyday life.
E.g. when they are unable to maintain standards of nutrients and basic hygiene.
Rosenhan and seligman came up with additional signs by determine if someone is not coping.
- when a person no longer conforms to standard interpersonal rules.
- when a person experiences several personal distress
- When a person behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous to themselves or others
Evaluation for failure to function adequately
This definition offers a practical way of identifying mental health disorders, particularly in terms of evaluating whether a person can meet the demands of day-to-day life. It provides a useful framework for diagnosing conditions such as severe depression or schizophrenia, where people might struggle with daily tasks.
Failure to Consider the Person’s Perspective:
Failure to function adequately focuses on external behaviours, but it doesn’t always take into account the person’s own view of their functioning. A person may not be able to carry out daily tasks due to temporary circumstances or personal choices, but they may not see this as a problem. For instance, someone who is grieving or going through a period of emotional stress may temporarily struggle with their daily routine but may not be clinically “failing to function.”
Deviation from ideal mental health
to look at abnormal and normal ppl is by ignoring the issue of what makes them abnormal but instead think about what makes anyone normal.
Jahoda has suggest we are in good mental health is we meet:
- No symptoms or distress
- rational and can perceive ourselves accurately
- we self actualise
- good self esteem
- successfully work
Evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health
Holistic Approach:
Deviation from Ideal Mental Health considers a wide range of factors that contribute to mental well-being, such as self-actualisation, personal growth, and the ability to cope with stress. This holistic approach provides a more comprehensive understanding of mental health, compared to models that focus solely on abnormal behaviours.
Unrealistic and Overly Idealistic:
The criteria for ideal mental health set a very high standard, which may be unrealistic for most people to meet consistently. For example, the expectation to have “self-actualisation” at all times or an “accurate perception of reality” may be unattainable for the majority of people. This can make the model overly idealistic and impractical for diagnosing mental health issues.
Overemphasis on Self-Actualisation:
The focus on self-actualisation (the ability to reach one’s full potential) as a central criterion of mental health may not be realistic for everyone. Some people may live fulfilling, happy lives without necessarily achieving full self-actualisation, and this could be ignored or pathologised by the model.
Phobias
A phobia is an anxiety disorder characterised by an intense, irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity. The fear is often out of proportion to the actual threat posed.
Emotional:
Intense fear or anxiety when exposed to the phobic stimulus.
Feelings of dread or panic are common, and the individual may experience an overwhelming sense of terror.
Cognitive:
The individual may have persistent, irrational thoughts about the feared object or situation.
These thoughts may lead to distorted thinking, like catastrophising or thinking the worst will happen.
Behavioural:
Avoidance, panic and Endurance
Explanation of phobias
The behavioural approach explains phobias as learned behaviours that are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning.
Classical Conditioning (Learning by Association):
A phobia can develop if a neutral stimulus is paired with an unpleasant or traumatic event.
Over time, the individual associates the neutral stimulus (the dog) with fear and anxiety, and the phobia is learned.
Operant Conditioning (Reinforcement):
Negative reinforcement plays a role in maintaining the phobia. This occurs when the individual avoids the feared object or situation, which reduces anxiety and therefore reinforces the avoidance behaviour.
what are the types of way to treat phobias
Systematic desensitisation
Flooding
Systematic desensitisation
This involves gradually exposing the individual to the phobic stimulus while teaching them relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety.
The process begins with the person learning relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing or progressive muscle relaxation.
Gradual, controlled exposure to the phobic stimulus occurs in a hierarchy, from least to most frightening, allowing the individual to associate the feared object with relaxation rather than anxiety.
Flooding
Flooding is an intense form of exposure therapy where the individual is exposed to the phobic stimulus for an extended period of time in a controlled environment. This helps them experience that the feared stimulus is not as dangerous as they imagined, and they learn to relax in its presence.
Evaluation for explanation of phobias
Support from Classical Conditioning:
The behavioural explanation of phobias is supported by classical conditioning research. For example, the famous case of Little Albert demonstrated that an infant could develop a phobia (fear of white rats) by associating a neutral stimulus (the rat) with an unpleasant experience (a loud noise). This experimental evidence supports the idea that phobias can develop through association between a neutral stimulus and a fearful experience.
Does Not Explain All Phobias:
The behavioural explanation is less effective at explaining complex phobias (e.g., social phobia or agoraphobia), which may not have a clear, single traumatic event as a trigger.
Some phobias develop without a specific negative experience, and therefore classical conditioning cannot fully account for their development.
Oversimplification:
The behavioural approach may oversimplify the development of phobias by focusing solely on external experiences (e.g., conditioning) without considering internal cognitive factors or biological influences.
The cognitive and biological components of phobias, such as thought patterns or genetic predispositions, are not adequately explained by the behavioural model.
Evaluation Points for Treating Phobias
Practicality:
Behavioural therapies like systematic desensitisation are relatively straightforward to implement and can be adapted for use in different contexts (e.g., one-on-one therapy, group therapy, virtual environments for virtual reality exposure).
Treatments like flooding can be very effective in a short time, often leading to rapid relief from phobic symptoms.
Risk of Flooding Being Traumatic:
Flooding can be very intense, leading to traumatic experiences if not conducted in a controlled and supportive manner. While effective, the extreme nature of the therapy may make some patients unwilling to participate, or it could even worsen their symptoms if they are not properly prepared or if they experience extreme distress.
For some people, this form of exposure may worsen anxiety or lead to an aversion to treatment.
Requires Commitment and Motivation:
Exposure therapy requires a high level of commitment and motivation from the individual. If a patient is not motivated or willing to face their fear, treatment may be ineffective.
Some people may struggle with completing exposure tasks, particularly in flooding where the exposure can be immediate and intense.
Depression
Depression is a mood disorder characterised by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and a lack of interest or pleasure in activities that were once enjoyable. It affects an individual’s thoughts, emotions, behaviour, and physical well-being.
Emotional:
Persistent feelings of sadness, emptiness, or hopelessness.
Loss of interest or pleasure in activities once enjoyed.
Feelings of worthlessness or guilt.
Behavioural:
Withdrawal from social activities and relationships.
Reduced energy levels, leading to fatigue and a lack of motivation.
Decreased productivity and poor performance at work or school.
Sleep disturbances (insomnia or excessive sleeping).
Cognitive:
Difficulty concentrating, making decisions, or remembering things.
Negative thinking, including pessimism and self-criticism.
Explanation of depression
Faulty info processing:
Depressed people may tend towards ‘black and white thinking’ where something is either all good or all bad.
Beck’s Cognitive Triad:
Depression is caused by negative thoughts about oneself, the world, and the future. This negative thinking pattern contributes to the development and maintenance of depression.
Negative Schema’s:
People with depression tend to have negative schema’s or beliefs formed early in life. These influence how they interpret events, leading to feelings of hopelessness and helplessness. A scheme is a package of ideas and info developed through experience. they act as a mental framework.
Ellis ABC model:
Ellis defined irrational thoughts not as illogical or unrealistic thoughts but as any thoughts that interfere with us being happy and free from pain. He used the ABC model to explain how irrational thoughts affect our behav and emotional state.
A - activating events - This is an event or situation that triggers a response.
B - belief - This refers to the beliefs or thoughts we have about the event (A). According to Ellis, it’s not the event itself that causes emotional distress, but the beliefs we hold about the event.
C - consequence - The emotional and behavioural outcomes of our beliefs about the event. If we hold irrational beliefs, they can lead to negative emotional responses like anxiety, anger, or depression
Evaluation for explanation of depression
Beck:
Research Support:
There is strong evidence supporting Beck’s theory, particularly the idea that negative cognitive triad (negative thoughts about oneself, the world, and the future) is common in people with depression. Studies show that people with depression tend to interpret situations negatively, which supports the notion that cognitive distortions contribute to the development and maintenance of depression.
Causality Issue:
Beck’s theory assumes that negative thought patterns lead to depression, but it is unclear whether these negative thoughts are the cause or the result of depression. It’s possible that depression itself causes negative thinking rather than the other way around.
Not All Depressed People Have Negative Thoughts:
Not all individuals with depression exhibit the cognitive patterns Beck describes (e.g., the negative cognitive triad). This suggests that Beck’s theory may not apply to all cases of depression, particularly in atypical or severe depression cases where cognitive distortions may not be prominent.
Ellis:
Influential and Practical:
Ellis’s ABC Model has been highly influential in cognitive therapy, particularly Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT). This therapy has shown effectiveness in treating depression and anxiety by helping individuals challenge irrational beliefs.
The ABC Model is simple and clear, making it an easy-to-understand framework for both therapists and clients to address emotional issues.
Cognitive Focus:
Like Beck’s theory, Ellis’s ABC Model places a heavy emphasis on cognition, neglecting the potential biological and social causes of depression. For example, genetic predisposition or neurotransmitter imbalances are not addressed.
The theory also does not explain why some people may hold irrational beliefs but do not develop depression. This raises questions about the universality of the model.
Cultural Bias:
The ABC Model may be culturally biased, particularly toward individualistic societies where personal responsibility for emotional states is emphasised. In collectivist cultures, emotional distress might be more linked to social or familial factors, and the focus on individual cognition may not be as applicable.
Treatment for depression
CBT is the most commonly used psychological treatment for depression.
Cognitive element: The therapist helps the individual recognise irrational or distorted thoughts (e.g., “I’ll never succeed”) and challenge them with more balanced, realistic thoughts.
Behavioural element: The therapist encourages the individual to engage in positive activities to improve mood and reduce withdrawal or inactivity, which are common in depression.
Ellis’s rational emotive behavioural therapy. (REBT)
REBT extends the ABC model to ABCDE.
D - dispute - The therapist helps the individual dispute or challenge their irrational beliefs
E - effect - After disputing the irrational beliefs, the therapist helps the individual replace them with rational and more realistic beliefs
Evaluation for treatment for depression
Empirical Support:
CBT is one of the most researched and evidence-backed therapies for depression. Numerous studies have shown its effectiveness in treating depression and preventing relapse. Research suggests that CBT can be as effective as antidepressant medications for mild to moderate depression.
REBT, developed by Ellis, also has solid empirical support for reducing depression by helping clients change irrational beliefs and thinking patterns.
Cognitive treatments are non-invasive, which means they do not involve medication or any physical procedures. This makes them a suitable option for those who prefer not to take medication. These therapies tend to be short-term (usually between 12-20 sessions for CBT), making them a more time-efficient treatment compared to other methods, like psychodynamic therapy, which may take longer.
Not Effective for Severe Depression:
Cognitive therapies, while effective for mild to moderate depression, may not be as effective for individuals with severe depression. Those with severe forms of depression may struggle with motivation, concentration, and engaging in the therapy, making it difficult for them to benefit fully from cognitive approaches.
For severe depression, medication (such as antidepressants) is often used in conjunction with therapy to ensure better outcomes.
Overemphasis on Cognition:
Cognitive treatments primarily focus on changing negative thought patterns, but they may not fully address the biological or social causes of depression. For example, neurotransmitter imbalances, genetics, or life stressors might not be adequately addressed in purely cognitive therapies.
This narrow focus on cognitive factors might mean the therapy is less effective for individuals whose depression is influenced by factors beyond their thought patterns (e.g., chemical imbalances).
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is an anxiety disorder characterised by:
Obsessions – Recurrent, intrusive thoughts, images, or urges that cause anxiety or distress.
Compulsions – Repetitive behaviours or mental acts performed to reduce the anxiety caused by obsessions or to prevent a feared event from occurring.
Behavioural characteristics:
- compulsive are repetitive
- avoidance
Emotional characteristics:
- anxiety and distress
- Guilt and disgust
- accompanying depression
Cognitive characteristics:
- obsessive thoughts
- Cognitive coping strategies
Explanation of OCD
GENETIC EXPLAN
Lewis that of his observed OCD patients, 37% had parents with OCD and 21% had siblings with OCD. This suggests that OCD can run in families.
Candidate genes are genes that create vulnerabilities. These genes involve regulating the developing of the serotonin development.
OCD is polygenic, it is not created by single gene but by a combination of variations.
Dopamine is another neurotransmitter that is also associated to OCD.
NEURAL EXPLAN
- serotonin helps regulates mood. Neurotransmitters are responsible for relying info from one neuron to another. if low level of serotonin then normal level of transmission of mood relevant info does not take place and a person may experience low moods.
The Basal Ganglia: Research suggests the basal ganglia, involved in motor control, may also play a role in the compulsive behaviours seen in OCD.
Evaluation for genetic explanation of OCD
Research studies have shown that genetic factors play a significant role in the development of OCD. For instance, twin studies show a higher concordance rate for OCD in monozygotic (identical) twins (up to 68%) compared to dizygotic (non-identical) twins (31%). This suggests a genetic predisposition to the disorder, as identical twins share 100% of their genes, whereas non-identical twins share only 50%. These studies imply that individuals who share more genetic material are more likely to both develop OCD, supporting the genetic explanation.
The genetic explanation aligns with findings from neurobiological research. For example, abnormalities in certain brain regions, such as the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and basal ganglia, have been linked to OCD. Genes that influence these brain areas’ functioning support the genetic explanation, particularly in how the brain processes fear, obsession, and compulsive behaviour.
Environmental Factors Are Not Considered. While genetics may contribute to the development of OCD, the genetic explanation does not adequately account for environmental factors. Environmental influences, such as trauma, childhood abuse, or stressful life events, can trigger or exacerbate the onset of OCD in genetically predisposed individuals.For instance, some individuals who are genetically predisposed to OCD may never develop the disorder if they are not exposed to certain environmental triggers. This suggests that genetics alone cannot fully explain the disorder.
No Single Gene Has Been Identified:
Although multiple candidate genes have been suggested, no single gene has been definitively linked to OCD. The genetic explanation is still under investigation, and the complexity of genetic interactions makes it difficult to pinpoint specific genes involved. The lack of clear-cut genetic markers makes the genetic explanation somewhat speculative and incomplete.
It is likely that OCD is caused by multiple genes interacting with one another and with environmental factors, rather than being attributable to a single gene.
Evaluation for neural explanation of OCD
Supporting Evidence from Neurotransmitter Research:
Serotonin is one of the neurotransmitters most strongly implicated in OCD. Studies have shown that people with OCD often have low levels of serotonin, and many of the most effective treatments for OCD (e.g., SSRIs like fluoxetine) work by increasing serotonin levels.
Overemphasis on Biological Factors:
The neural explanation focuses heavily on the biological aspects of OCD, but this can be seen as reductionist. OCD is a complex disorder, and biological explanations may neglect the role of psychological factors (such as cognitive distortions, as seen in the cognitive model of OCD) or environmental factors (e.g., childhood trauma, stress). Ignoring cognitive or social factors means that the neural explanation alone cannot fully explain the development and persistence of OCD.
Ineffectiveness of Medication for Some:
Although SSRIs and other medications targeting serotonin and dopamine are effective for many people with OCD, they do not work for everyone. Approximately 40-60% of patients show only partial or no improvement from medication.
This suggests that neural factors alone may not account for the full range of OCD symptoms, and other factors (e.g., psychological, environmental) may also play a role in the disorder.
Treatment for OCD
Medication as a Biological Treatment for OCD:
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs):
Overview:
SSRIs are the most commonly prescribed medications for OCD and are considered first-line treatment for the disorder.
SSRIs work by increasing serotonin levels in the brain, which is thought to be dysregulated in people with OCD. Serotonin is involved in mood regulation, and a deficiency is believed to contribute to obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors.
SSRIs are often used alongside CBT to treat OCD.
If SSRIs are not effective after 3 to 4 months the does can be increased (to 60mg). Some times different antidepressants are tried as people respond differently to different drugs.
Evaluation for treatment for OCD
Evidence of effectiveness:
one strength of drug treatment for OCD is good evidence as there is clear evidence to show that SSRIs reduce symptom severity and quality of life. Soomro et al reviewed 17 studies that compared SSRIs to placebo. All 17 studies had showed greater significance for SSRIs than placebo.
Drug treatment is generally cheaper than any other psychological treatment. Using drugs to treat OCD is therefore good value for public health systems like the NHS. SSRIs are non disruptive to peoples lives as you can take the drugs until your symptoms decline which is different from psychological therapies where u are spend dung time with the psychologist. This means that drugs are popular with many people with OCD and their doctors.
