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A-Level Psychology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

What are the five ethical issues?

A

Right to withdraw

Anonymity

Protection from harm (psychological and physical)

Informed consent

Deception

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2
Q

What is the right to withdraw?

A

Participants should be told at the beginning of the experiment that they have the right to withdraw at any time - before, during or after the experiment - without needing to give a reason

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3
Q

What are the limitations with the right to withdraw?

A

Participants may feel pressure to stay in the experiment even when they have been told they can leave

Pressure can increase if they are being paid by the psychologist to take part

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4
Q

What is anonymity?

A

Researchers should not record the name of any participants - they should give anonymity codes instead (numbers or false names)

No information should be published that could make someone recognisable

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5
Q

What are the limitations of anonymity?

A

In some unique cases, it can be hard to keep the participant anonymous - especially in case studies

Some participants reveal themselves as the participants

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6
Q

What is protection from harm?

A

Participants should leave the experiment in the same or better state than when they started the experiment

Avoid any risks greater than everyday life and stop the study if harm suspected

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7
Q

What are the limitations of protection from harm?

A

Psychologists cannot predict all types of harm that could occur

Short term harm is sometimes seen as acceptable

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8
Q

What is informed consent?

A

Participants should know everything about the study before and during the experiment

Participants are asked to sign a document which shows that they agree to take part in an experiment, which should include the nature of the study (task, duration)

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9
Q

What are the two types of consent?

A

Presumptive consent

Prior general consent

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10
Q

What is presumptive consent?

A

Speak to people who are similar to the participants (same age/sex/location) if they would take part in the experiment

If they say yes, assume real participants would say yes

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11
Q

What is prior general consent?

A

Ask them to give consent to multiple studies which includes your real study

Ask them if they consent to being lied to

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12
Q

What are the limitations of informed consent?

A

Can lead to demand characteristics

Presumptive consent doesn’t always work as a solution

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13
Q

What is deception?

A

Need for deception should be approved by the ethical committee, weighing up benefits of the study to the costs of the participants

Participants should be fully debriefed after the study to explain true nature, where they should be able to discuss any concerns that they have

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14
Q

What is a debrief?

A

Speak to the participants after the study and let them know the true aim of the study

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15
Q

What are the limitations of deception/debrief?

A

Debriefs don’t stop the lying from occurring

Some participants may still feel upset by the deception

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16
Q

When are consent forms given?

A

At the beginning

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17
Q

What is the format of a consent form?

A

Aim:

Conditions: task, instructions, duration, other groups

Ethical issues: mainly right to withdraw and anonymity

Sign:

Print name:

Date:

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18
Q

When is a debrief form given?

A

At the end

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19
Q

What is the format of a debrief form?

A

Aim:

Conditions: task, instructions, duration, other groups

Thank them for taking part:

Remind them of ethical issues:

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20
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Participants guessing the aim of the study, causing them to change their behaviours

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21
Q

What is mundane realism?

A

How similar the experiment is to real-life

How “realistic” the task is

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22
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

Researcher bias

Unconsciously the investigator could manipulate the experiment to get the results they want

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23
Q

What is a single blind experiment?

A

Participants don’t know what conditions they are in/if there are more conditions

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24
Q

What is a double-blind experiment?

A

Both researcher and participant don’t know the aim of the study

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25
Q

What does operationalised mean?

A

Specific

Measurable

Detailed

Objective

Comprehensive

Mutually exclusive

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26
Q

What is an independent variable?

A

Variable you change

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27
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

Variable you measure

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28
Q

What are control variables?

A

Things you keep the same

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29
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

Procedure variables

Any variable that has affected the DV which is not the IV

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30
Q

What are some examples of extraneous variables?

A

Location

Time

Noise levels

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31
Q

What are confounding variables?

A

Participant variables

Anything different about the participant which affects the DV that is not the IV

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32
Q

What are some examples of confounding variables?

A

Age

Eye sight

Personality

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33
Q

What are the four types of experiment?

A

Laboratory

Quasi

Natural

Field

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34
Q

What is a laboratory experiment?

A

Highly controlled environment

Artificial task

Unrealistic setting

(Not always in a laboratory)

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35
Q

What are the advantages of laboratory experiments?

A

High control of extraneous variables

Establish cause and effect

Replication is possible

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36
Q

What are the disadvantages of laboratory experiments?

A

Low ecological validity

Higher demand characteristics

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37
Q

What are quasi experiments?

A

IV is an existing difference between people such as age/sex/personality

Majority of time conducted in lab like conditions

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38
Q

What are the advantages of quasi experiments?

A

High control of extraneous variables

Establish cause and effect

Replication is possible

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39
Q

What are the disadvantages of quasi experiments?

A

Confounding variables

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40
Q

What are natural experiments?

A

IV is natural

Realistic task

Typically realistic setting (but can be in a lab)

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41
Q

What are the advantages of natural experiments?

A

Can test things that aren’t ethically possible to create in a lab

High ecological validity

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42
Q

What are the disadvantages of natural experiments?

A

Confounding variables

Rare opportunities

Difficult to generalise as unique

Loss of control of extraneous variables

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43
Q

What are field experiments?

A

IV is manipulated

More realistic setting

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44
Q

What are the advantages of field experiments?

A

Mundane realism

Higher ecological validity than lab

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45
Q

What are the disadvantages of field experiments?

A

Loss of control of extraneous variables

Ethical issues

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46
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

Statement in which you predict what will happen

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47
Q

What is an aim?

A

Stating the general purpose of the experiment

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48
Q

What are the two types of hypothesis?

A

Directional

Non directional

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49
Q

What is a directional hypothesis?

A

Can predict which condition will perform better than the other

Used when there is previous research to state which direction its likely to go

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50
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

A

Think there will be a difference between your conditions but are not sure which condition will perform better/worse

No previous research

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51
Q

How do you choose which type of hypothesis to write?

A

Previous research = directional

No previous research = non-directional

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52
Q

What is the structure of a non-directional test of difference hypothesis?

A

There will be a difference in DV for IV and IV

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53
Q

What is the structure of a directional test of difference hypothesis?

A

IV’s DV will be higher/lower than IV’s DV

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54
Q

What is the structure of a non-directional test of relationship hypothesis?

A

There will be a relationship between DV and DV

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55
Q

What is the structure of a directional test of relationship hypothesis?

A

There will be a positive/negative relationship between DV and DV

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56
Q

How do you write a hypothesis?

A
  1. decide if directional or non-directional (“previous research)
  2. test of difference or relationship (“relationship”)
  3. find variables (IV and DV)
  4. operationalise variables (look for table)
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57
Q

What are the four types of graph that are needed to know in the AQA spec?

A

Scatter graph

Bar graph

Histogram

Line graph

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58
Q

How do you draw a bar graph?

A

Categories (discrete data) on x axis (nominal data)

Frequency on y axis (continuous data)

Height of column represents frequency

Bars don’t touch (gaps inbetweeen)

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59
Q

How do you draw a scatter graph?

A

Continuous data on x and y axis

“Relationship” and 2 DVs

Participants NOT on axis

Crosses = participants

No lines of best fit

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60
Q

How do you draw a histogram?

A

Frequency on y axis

Continuous scale on x axis

No gaps between bars

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61
Q

How do you draw a line graph?

A

Continuous data on x and y axis

One participant’s data

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62
Q

What is the success criteria for graphs?

A

Title

x axis label - operationalise

y axis label - operationalise

Units/correct scale

Accurate plotting

Choose correct graph (6th mark)

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63
Q

What are the measures of central tendency?

A

Mean

Median

Mode

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64
Q

What data is the mean used for?

A

Interval data

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65
Q

How do you calculate the mean?

A

Add up all the numbers

Divide by how many numbers there are

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66
Q

What are the advantages of the mean?

A

Most sensitive/representative

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67
Q

What are the disadvantages of the mean?

A

Easily distorted by extreme values/anomalies

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68
Q

What data is the median used for?

A

Ordinal data

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69
Q

How do you calculate the median?

A

Put the numbers in order

Cross out one number from both sides until you reach the middle

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70
Q

What are the advantages of the median?

A

Extreme scores don’t affect it

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71
Q

What are the disadvantages of the median?

A

Less sensitive

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72
Q

What data is the mode used on?

A

Nominal data

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73
Q

How do you calculate the mode?

A

Most common number

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74
Q

What are the advantages of the mode?

A

Extreme scores don’t affect it

Quick

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75
Q

What are the disadvantages of the mode?

A

Less sensitive

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76
Q

What is a normal distribution?

A

Most people located in the middle of the curve

Allows mean, median and mode to have same midpoint (SIMILAR numbers)

Symmetrical

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77
Q

What is a positive skew distribution?

A

Most of the curve towards left side

Tail of the curve continuing positively

Right foot/happy whale

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78
Q

Is the mode the lowest or highest score in a positive distribution?

A

Lowest

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79
Q

What is a negative skew distribution?

A

Most of the curve towards right side

Tail of curve continuing negatively

Left foot/sad whale

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80
Q

Is the mode the lowest or highest score in a negative distribution?

A

Highest

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81
Q

How do you draw a distribution?

A
  1. label y axis frequency
  2. label x axis score/scale
  3. plot the mode as the highest point on y axis and label
  4. plot the median lower than the mode on y axis and label
  5. plot the mean lower than the median on the y axis and label
  6. sketch curve
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82
Q

How do you change from a positive skew to normal distribution?

A

Test is too difficult

As mode is a low score

Should make test easier

Should increase mode and make a normal distribution

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83
Q

How do you change from a negative skew to a normal distribution?

A

Test is too easy

As mode is a high score

Should make test harder

Should decrease mode and make a normal distribution

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84
Q

What are self-report techniques?

A

Questionnaire

Interview

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85
Q

What is a questionnaire?

A

A pre-set list of written questions which participants record their answers

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86
Q

What can a questionnaire be used to assess?

A

DV

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87
Q

What are the advantages of questionnaires?

A

Cost-effective

Large amounts of data quickly

Easier to analyse (can produce graphs and charts)

Less effort (can be completed without researcher being there)

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88
Q

What are the disadvantages of questionnaires?

A

Demand characteristics

Social desirability

Participants may not understand questions

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89
Q

What are the two types of questions?

A

Open-ended

Closed

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90
Q

What are closed questions?

A

Respondents have limited choices

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91
Q

What type of data do closed questions produce?

A

Quantitative

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92
Q

What are some types of closed questions?

A

Likert scale

Rating scales

Fixed choice options

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93
Q

What is a Likert scale?

A

Respondent indicates agreement with a statement using a scale of usually five points

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94
Q

What is a rating scale?

A

Gets respondents to identify value that represents their strength of feeling on a particular topic

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95
Q

What is a fixed choice option?

A

Includes list of possible answers

Respondents required to pick all that apply to them

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96
Q

What are the advantages of closed questions?

A

Easier to analyse and compare

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97
Q

What are the disadvantages of closed questions?

A

Forces people to pick (limited choices)

Lacks depth and detail

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98
Q

What are open-ended questions?

A

Does not have a fixed answer

Respondents provide own answers expressed in words

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99
Q

What type of data do open-ended questions produce?

A

Qualitative

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100
Q

What are the advantages of open-ended questions?

A

Rich in depth and detail

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101
Q

What are the disadvantages of open-ended questions?

A

Difficult to analyse

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102
Q

What are interviews?

A

Face-to-face or virtual interaction between an interviewer and interviewee

Done individually or in a group

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103
Q

What are structured interviews?

A

Made up of a pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order

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104
Q

What are the advantages of structured interviews?

A

Easy to replicate

Reduces bias

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105
Q

What are the disadvantages of structured interviews?

A

Not able to understand the insight of answers or gather detail

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106
Q

What are unstructured interviews?

A

There are no set questions, just a general topic or aim

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107
Q

What are the advantages of unstructured interviews?

A

More flexibility

Gain insight/detail

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108
Q

What are the disadvantages of unstructured interviews?

A

Difficult to analyse and replicate

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109
Q

How should interviews be designed?

A

Most involve interview schedule (list of questions to cover)

Should be standardised for each participant to try and reduce interview bias

Conducted in single or group settings

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110
Q

What are the different observations?

A

Naturalistic

Controlled

Overt

Covert

Participant

Non-participant

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111
Q

What is a naturalistic observation?

A

Setting or context where target behaviour is usually seen

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112
Q

What are the advantages of naturalistic observations?

A

High ecological validity

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113
Q

What are the disadvantages of naturalistic observations?

A

Lack of control of variables (EV)

Hard to replicate

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114
Q

What are controlled observations?

A

Manipulate the situation or behaviour

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115
Q

What are the advantages of controlled observations?

A

High control of variables (EV)

Easier to replicate

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Perfectly
116
Q

What are the disadvantages of controlled observations?

A

Low ecological validity

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117
Q

What is an overt observation?

A

Participants know they are being watched

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118
Q

What are the advantages of overt observations?

A

Ethical

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119
Q

What are the disadvantages of overt observations?

A

Demand characteristics

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120
Q

What is a covert observation?

A

Participants don’t know they are being watched

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121
Q

What are the advantages of covert observations?

A

Lower risk of demand characteristics

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122
Q

What are the disadvantages of covert observations?

A

Unethical - don’t give consent

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123
Q

What is a participant observation?

A

Observer becomes part of the group they are observing

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124
Q

What are the advantages of participant observations?

A

Increased insight of the meaning of behaviours

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125
Q

What are the disadvantages of participant observations?

A

Lose objectivity

May forget information

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126
Q

What is a non-participant observation?

A

Observer remains separate from participants

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127
Q

What are the advantages of non-participant observations?

A

Objective distance from participants

Can write down information as it happens

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128
Q

What are the disadvantages of non-participant observations?

A

Lose insight

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129
Q

What is an unstructured observation?

A

Records all information without a system

Mainly used in a new situation to decide what behaviours should be focused on

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130
Q

What is a structured observation?

A

Record information through behavioural categories and sampling procedures

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131
Q

What are behavioural categories?

A

A behavioural checklist of target behaviours which you then tally

Must be operationalised

132
Q

What is event sampling?

A

Counting number of times a behaviour occurs

133
Q

What is time sampling?

A

Recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame (every 30 seconds), typically focused on one person’s behaviour

134
Q

What is the method of time sampling?

A
  1. record child’s behaviour at set time intervals during a time period, eg every 20 seconds
  2. at the specified time intervals, tick/make one or more categories from the behavioural checklist according to the behaviour
  3. give an example of a behaviour
  4. behaviours observed in between the time sampling frames should be ignored and should not be recorded
135
Q

What are the advantages of time sampling?

A

Easier to manage as there are likely many behaviours occurring throughout set observation time

Most appropriate for recording ongoing behaviours that are likely to occur in a social setting

137
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

Small scale trial run of the experiment before the real experiment

138
Q

What is the purpose of a pilot study?

A

Check for any potential problems which they can then modify the design or procedure to correct

139
Q

What does a pilot study for an experiment check for?

A

Timing

Instructions are clear and understood

Ask participants their opinion on the experiment for feedback/improvements

Check materials

140
Q

What does a pilot study for an interview/questionnaire check for?

A

Test out a few of their questions to check for understanding

Instructions are clear and understood

Ask participants their opinion on the interview/questionnaire for feedback/improvements

141
Q

What does a pilot study for an observation check for?

A

Instructions are clear and understood

Ask participants their opinion on the observation for feedback/improvements

Check behavioural categories/coding system

142
Q

What are the experiment designs?

A

Matched pairs

Repeated measures

Independent groups

143
Q

What are order effects?

A

Order tasks are done in affects the task

144
Q

What is a matched pairs design?

A

Choose a characteristic to match ppts on

Example of characteristic

Test ppts on characteristic

Match ppts based on test score and then randomly allocate one of each pair to each condition

145
Q

What are the advantages of matched pairs design?

A

Tries to reduce participant variables

No order effects

Less chance of demand characteristics

146
Q

What are the disadvantages of matched pairs design?

A

Participants can never be matched exactly

Time consuming

147
Q

What is the ‘fix’ for matched pairs?

A

Choose only one key characteristic

148
Q

What is a repeated measures design?

A

All participants take part in both conditions of an experiment

Can be two different tests

Performance of each ppt compared to themselves

149
Q

What are the advantages of repeated measures design?

A

No participant variables

Fewer participants needed

150
Q

What are the disadvantages of repeated measures design?

A

Order effects

Higher risk of demand characteristics

151
Q

What are the ‘fixes’ for repeated measures?

A

Counterbalancing

Match materials for difficulty

152
Q

Does counterbalancing fix order effects?

A

NO - CHECKS FOR ORDER EFFECTS

153
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

Split ppts into two groups

First group does condition 1 then condition 2

Second group does condition 2 then condition 1

Compare scores for each condition - if scores different, order effects have occurred

154
Q

What is an independent groups design?

A

Two or more groups of ppts who only take part in one condition of experiment

155
Q

What are the advantages of independent groups design?

A

No order effects

Less risk of demand characteristics

156
Q

What are the disadvantages of independent groups design?

A

Participant variables

157
Q

What is the ‘fix’ for independent groups design?

A

Random allocation:
- give each participant a number
- place numbers into a hat/random number generator
- select ppts alternatively for each group

158
Q

What are the different types of sampling?

A

Volunteer

Opportunity

Random

Systematic

Stratified

159
Q

What is a target population?

A

Large group of people you are trying to understand/explain

160
Q

What is a sample?

A

Smaller group of participants in the target population

161
Q

What does representative mean?

A

Sample to have same characteristics as our target population

162
Q

What is the volunteer sampling method?

A

Participants select themselves to take part in an experiment - typically put up an advert

163
Q

What are the advantages of volunteer sampling?

A

Easy

Less time consuming

164
Q

What are the disadvantages of volunteer sampling?

A

Volunteer bias - only certain people will volunteer (confident)

165
Q

What is the method of opportunity sampling?

A

Psychologist chooses ppts who are willing to take part - passers by

166
Q

What are the advantages of opportunity sampling?

A

Less time consuming

Easy

167
Q

What are the disadvantages of opportunity sampling?

A

Biased sample - only from one area

Researcher bias - psychologists only ask people they “want” to take part

168
Q

What is the method of random sampling?

A

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected

  1. each person is given a number
  2. number goes into a hat
  3. select number of ppts needed
169
Q

What are the advantages of random sampling?

A

No researcher bias

170
Q

What are the disadvantages of random sampling?

A

Unrepresentative sample

Time consuming

171
Q

What is the method of systematic sampling?

A

Every nth person of the target population is chosen to take part

172
Q

What are the advantages of systematic sampling?

A

No researcher bias

173
Q

What are the disadvantages of systematic sampling?

A

Unrepresentative sample

Requires time and effort

174
Q

What is the method of stratified sampling?

A

Sample is mini version of target population

  1. choose sub group
  2. find out ratio in target population
  3. randomly select sample out of sub groups
  4. explain random sampling methods (number of people in sample per sub group)
175
Q

What are the advantages of stratified sampling?

A

No researcher bias

Tries to make the sample representative

176
Q

What are the disadvantages of stratified sampling?

A

Cannot create perfect representation of target population

Time-consuming

177
Q

What is qualitative data?

A

Non-numerical data

Language - expressed in words, created by open-ended questions

178
Q

What are the advantages of qualitative data?

A

Richness of detail

179
Q

What are the disadvantages of qualitative data?

A

Difficult to analyse

180
Q

What is quantitative data?

A

Numerical data

Numbers - statistics, age, test scores, created by closed questions

181
Q

What are the advantages of quantitative data?

A

Easy to analyse

182
Q

What are the disadvantages of quantitative data?

A

Lacks detail

183
Q

What is primary data?

A

Collected first-hand by the psychologists for the purpose of their own research

184
Q

What are the advantages of primary data?

A

More relevant to the experiment

Less peripheral information

More control

185
Q

What are the disadvantages of primary data?

A

Time and effort

Could be biased

186
Q

What is secondary data?

A

Previous research collected by someone else for the purpose of their research

187
Q

What are the advantages of secondary data?

A

Quicker to collect

Easy and cheap

188
Q

What are the disadvantages of secondary data?

A

Lack of control

Could be out-dated

189
Q

What is meta-analysis?

A

Conclusion of several studies which have all completed the same or similar experiments

190
Q

What are the advantages of meta-analysis?

A

Lots of data

Can see the general conclusion/norms

191
Q

What are the disadvantages of meta-analysis?

A

Lack of control

Publication bias - only look at positive research

192
Q

What are the measures of dispersion?

A

Range

Standard deviation

193
Q

What is the range?

A

Spread of the data

194
Q

How is the range calculated?

A

highest value - lowest value

195
Q

What are the advantages of the range?

A

Quicker than standard deviation

Easy to calculate

196
Q

What are the disadvantages of the range?

A

Easily affected by extreme values

Not as representative/sensitive

197
Q

What is the standard deviation?

A

Spread of data away from the mean

198
Q

How is the standard deviation calculated?

A

Substitute the number into the formula

  1. work out the mean
  2. for each number, subtract mean and square result
  3. work out mean of squared differences
  4. take square root of that
199
Q

What is a small standard deviation?

A

Data is close to the mean

200
Q

What is a large standard deviation?

A

Data is far away from the mean

201
Q

What are the advantages of standard deviation?

A

More representative/sensitive

202
Q

What are the disadvantages of standard deviation?

A

Difficult to calculate

Time-consuming

203
Q

What are the features of science?

A

Empirical methods

Replicability

Objectivity

Theory construction

Hypothesis testing

Paradigms

Falsifiability

204
Q

What is empirical methods?

A

Conducting experiments/observations/self-report to gather evidence

Information tested using research, through direct observation or experiment, without bias

205
Q

What topics show empirical methods?

A

Asch

Milgram

Loftus and Palmer

Behaviourist approach

206
Q

What topics DON’T show empirical methods?

A

Humanistic approach

207
Q

What is replicability?

A

Standardised procedures which meant that they could be repeated/replicated to assess consistency/reliability of the findings; this increased the validity of the conclusions drawn

Detailed report so that other psychologists can repeat the experiment in a different context and circumstance and see if you get consistent results so original experiment can be validated

208
Q

What topics show replicability?

A

Milgram / Game of Death

209
Q

What topics DON’T show replicability?

A

Asch / engineering students

Zimbardo / BBC

Strange Situation / Takahashi

Case studies

210
Q

What is objectivity?

A

Keeping a critical distance from the experiment and having a factual/scientific DV

Data collected from the empirical research should be factual data that cannot be argued against and the experimenter must keep a critical distance from their research

211
Q

What topics show objectivity?

A

Milgram

Double-blind procedure

212
Q

What topics DON’T show objectivity?

213
Q

What is a theory?

A

Collection of general principles that explain observations and facts

214
Q

What is theory construction?

A

Development of explanations/theories so that human behaviour can be predicted

Theories that help us understand and predict natural phenomena around us created by gathering evidence via direct observation

Inductive - theory then experiment
Deductive - experiment then theory

215
Q

What topics show theory construction?

A

Explanations of conformity

216
Q

What topics DON’T show theory construction?

A

Humanistic approach

217
Q

What is hypothesis testing?

A

Manipulating an IV to measure the effect on the DV and keeping other (possible confounding) variables constant

218
Q

What is a paradigm?

A

Shared assumptions between all psychologists

Psychology is classed as a pre-science as there are too many disagreements/approaches to be classed as a science

219
Q

What is a paradigm shift?

A

The result of a scientific revolution - a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within scientific discipline

220
Q

What is falsifiability?

A

Ability to disprove a theory/prove it wrong

221
Q

What topics show falsifiability?

A

Behaviourist approach

222
Q

What topics DON’T show falsifiability?

A

Psychodynamic approach

Humanistic approach

223
Q

What is a peer review?

A

Before you are allowed to publish your research, must go through a peer review

224
Q

What is the process of a peer review?

A

Where other psychologists/EXPERTS (psychology who work in a similar field) read through your research to see if it is allowed to be published

Done anonymously

225
Q

What is research checked for in a peer review?

A

Validity

Significance

Originality

Method of the experiment - did they use controls, is the sample generalisable

226
Q

Why are peer reviews done anonymously?

A

Reduce bias

Remove bribery

227
Q

Is non-significant research published?

228
Q

What are the outcomes of a peer review?

A

Yes - published straight away

Yes but you need to make some adjustments first

No - start again

229
Q

What is the purpose of a peer review?

A

To ensure quality and relevant of research (methodology, data analysis etc)

To ensure accuracy of findings

To evaluate proposed designs (aims, quality and value of research) for research funding

230
Q

What are the strengths of peer review?

A

Protects the quality of the research - minimises fraudulent “bad” research and protects the reputation of psychology

231
Q

What are the limitations of peer review?

A

Publication bias - tends to publish only certain types of research and others may be ignored

232
Q

What is THE table?

A

Nominal and relationship = Chi
Nominal and repeated measures = Sign
Nominal and independent groups = Chi

Ordinal and relationship = Spearman
Ordinal and repeated measures = Wilcoxon
Ordinal and independent groups = Mann-Whitney

Interval and relationship = Pearson
Interval and repeated measures = Related t-test
Interval and independent groups = Unrelated t-test

233
Q

What are the levels of measurement?

A

Data

DV

Nominal, Ordinal, Interval

234
Q

What is nominal data?

A

Category data

235
Q

What is ordinal data?

A

Ordered in some way (ranked, scale 1-10)

236
Q

What is interval data?

A

Data on a scale with equal intervals

237
Q

What experimental design does matched pairs count as when it comes to THE table?

A

Repeated measures

238
Q

What is the order of the three decision makers in choosing an inferential test?

A
  1. data - level of measurement
  2. test of difference/relationship
  3. experimental design
239
Q

How is a sign test completed?

A
  1. calculate where differences are + or - or =
  2. add up number of + and - separately
  3. smaller number is s value
  4. check number of participants ignoring = ppts
  5. check to see if asked to use specific significance level; if not use 0.05
  6. check number of participants value for correct significance level
  7. is critical value < calculate value = significant
240
Q

What type of test does a directional hypothesis produce?

A

One-tailed

241
Q

What type of tailed test does a non-directional hypothesis produce?

A

Two-tailed

242
Q

How do you calculate the degrees of freedom?

A

(number of rows - 1) x (number of columns - 1)

243
Q

How is an inferential test completed?

A
  1. cross out incorrect tailed test
  2. cross out incorrect significance level
  3. cross out incorrect number of participants/df
  4. left with one number which is critical value
244
Q

How is significance written?

A
  1. the results were significant/non-significant
  2. because the calculated of … was more/less than the critical value of …
  3. for a one/two-tailed test, n/df = …, for a p < 0.05
  4. therefore we accept/reject the null hypothesis (accept = non-significant, reject = significant)
245
Q

What are the different sections of a scientific report?

A

Abstract

Literature review

Method

Results

Discussion

References

246
Q

How many words is a typical abstract?

A

100-300 words

247
Q

What is an abstract?

A

First section of a report

Brief/summary of aims, methods, results and conclusions

248
Q

What is the purpose of an abstract?

A

To allow the reader to decide if they want to read the full report

249
Q

What is an introduction?

A

Literature review of previous research with similar aim/procedure

250
Q

What is the purpose of an introduction?

A

Decision of what type of hypothesis to write

251
Q

What is included in a method?

A

Sample

Ethics

Task

Instructions

Materials

252
Q

What is the purpose of a method?

A

Allows for replicability

253
Q

What is included in a results section?

A

Measures of central tendency/dispersion

Graphs

Inferential tests

254
Q

What is the purpose of a results section?

A

Even insignificant results are published

255
Q

What is included in a discussion?

A

Implications for society

WWW/EBI

256
Q

What is the purpose of a discussion?

A

Peer review = should be published/funding

257
Q

How do you reference a journal article?

A

surname, initial. (year) article title, italics journal name, volume(issue), page number.

258
Q

How do you reference a book?

A

surname, initial. (year) italics book title, place of publication: publisher

259
Q

What is the purpose of references?

A

Allows to give credit

Stops plagiarism

260
Q

How do you write a design a study question?

A

Use subheadings to signpost

Signpost justification

Put a second justification for A*

Bring back around to scenario

Write 3/4 sentences per bullet point

261
Q

What is internal validity?

A

Are you measuring what you set out to measure?

262
Q

What is external validity?

A

Can you generalise your results?

263
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

Can your results generalise to real life?

264
Q

What studies show high ecological validity?

A

Natural studies

Yuille and Cutshall

265
Q

What studies show low ecological validity?

A

Lab studies

Loftus and Palmer

266
Q

What is temporal validity?

A

Can your results generalise to another time?

267
Q

What studies show high temporal validity?

A

New research

Tulving et al

268
Q

What studies show low temporal validity?

A

Old research

Asch

269
Q

What are the problems with validity?

A

Retrospective data

Demand characteristics

Investigator effects

Social desirability bias

270
Q

What are the different methods of assessing validity?

A

Face validity

Concurrent validity

271
Q

What is face validity?

A

On the surface, are you measuring what you set out to measure

272
Q

What is the method of face validity?

A

Ask an expert to check over method/results

Look for anomalies

273
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

Using an already established test to check your experiment’s results

274
Q

What is the method of concurrent validity?

A
  1. compare your results to an already established test’s results (can say interview family/friends and see if they give same answer)
  2. check the agreement - should be 0.8
  3. use an inferential test to check significance - Spearman or Pearson. If significant - good validity
275
Q

How can you improve population validity?

A

Use stratified sampling

276
Q

How can you improve internal validity?

A

Control group

Standardised method

Lab experiment

277
Q

How can you improve ecological validity?

A

Make more realistic

278
Q

How can you improve the validity of a lab experiment?

A

Control groups

Standardisation

Single/double blind

279
Q

How can you improve the validity of an observation?

A

Covert

Operationalise behavioural categories

280
Q

How can you improve the validity of a questionnaire?

A

Lie scale

Anonymous

281
Q

How can you improve the validity of qualitative research?

A

Interpretive validity - how their interpretation of the data matches the participants interpretation

Triangulation

282
Q

What is reliability?

A

Consistency

283
Q

What is internal reliability?

A

Is the method consistent?

284
Q

What is external reliability?

A

Are the results consistent?

285
Q

What are the different methods of assessing reliability?

A

Test-retest reliability

Inter-rater reliability

286
Q

What is test-retest reliability?

A

The SAME test is given to the SAME ppts on two occasions to see if the SAME results are obtained

287
Q

What is the method of test-retest reliability?

A
  1. test SAME ppts using SAME test but later
  2. compare results of two tests
  3. check agreement - should be 0.8+
  4. use inferential test - Spearman or Pearson - and if significant, high reliability
288
Q

What is inter-rater reliability?

A

The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of behaviour

289
Q

What is the method of inter-rater reliability?

A
  1. two psychologists discuss what they are going to analyse and how
  2. two psychologists observe/code/analyse same data but SEPARATELY (don’t talk)
  3. check agreement - should be 0.8+
  4. use inferential test - Spearman or Pearson - if significant, high reliability
290
Q

How can you improve observational reliability?

A

Operationalising behavioural categories

Training

291
Q

How can you improve self-report reliability?

A

Rewrite questions

Reduce ambiguity

Standardisation

292
Q

How can you improve experimental reliability?

A

Standardise procedure of experiments

293
Q

What is probability?

A

The likelihood of your results occurring by chance

294
Q

What is the alternative (experimental) hypothesis?

A

A testable statement of a relationship (difference, correlation, association)

Directional or non-directional

295
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

A prediction of no relationship or difference between variables studied

296
Q

What does p<0.05 mean?

A

A LESS THAN 5% probability that any difference has occurred by chance

297
Q

What does p<0.01 mean?

A

A LESS THAN 1% probability that any difference has occurred by chance

298
Q

What is a type 1 error?

A

The null hypothesis has been WRONGLY REJECTED

False positive

299
Q

What is a type 2 error?

A

The null hypothesis has been WRONGLY ACCEPTED

False negative

300
Q

How do you choose which hypothesis to accept/reject?

A

SIGNIFICANT results
- ACCEPT the ALTERNATIVE hypothesis
- REJECT the NULL hypothesis

NOT SIGNIFICANT results
- REJECT the ALTERNATIVE hypothesis
- ACCEPT the NULL hypothesis

301
Q

Why is 0.05 the default significance?

A

Balances the risk of having a type 1 and a type 2 error

0.01 is too narrow so you are more likely to make a type 1 or type 2 error

302
Q

When is a significance level of 0.01 used?

A

When there is significant effect on human life

303
Q

What is thematic analysis?

A

Produces themes, which are more descriptive than coding units

304
Q

What is the type of data at the beginning and end of thematic analysis?

A

Start - QUALITATIVE data

End - QUALITATIVE data

305
Q

What is the method of thematic analysis?

A
  1. read through several times
  2. find reoccurring themes and write them as quotes
  3. combine units in larger themes
  4. DO NOT CHANGE INTO QUANTITATIVE
  5. leave information as qualitative
306
Q

What is content analysis?

A

A method of quantifying qualitative content via coding/categorisation

A form of (indirect) observation that examines artefacts/communications/forms of media that people produce

307
Q

What is the type of data at the beginning and end of content analysis?

A

Start - QUALITATIVE data

End - QUANTITATIVE data

308
Q

What is the method of content analysis?

A
  1. read through several times
  2. Have PRE-MADE categories previously chosen to look out for
  3. count the frequency of each category
  4. change the information into quantitative data
309
Q

What are the strengths of content analysis?

A

Reliable way of analysing qualitative data as coding units not open to interpretation

Not time-consuming

Allows statistical analysis to be conducted

Many ethical issues may not apply if in public domain

310
Q

What are the limitations content analysis?

A

Causality not established (only describes data)

Cannot extract deeper meaning or explanation

Communication studied out of context

Lack objectivity

311
Q

What is a case study?

A

In-depth analysis of an individual, group, institution or event - typically ones who have had a unique experience

Typically longitudinal studies - conducted over a long period of time

312
Q

How are case studies typically conducted?

A

Self-reports to gain a case history and produce qualitative

Tests (like IQ tests) to produce quantitative data

Self reports on family/friends to gain more detail

313
Q

What are strengths of case studies?

A

Provide lots of data

Can investigate multiple factors at once

Able to update theories

314
Q

What are the limitations of case studies?

A

Cannot generalise the results

Can be subjective data

Could have social desirability bias

315
Q

What is a correlation?

A

Strength between two variables

316
Q

What are the types of correlation?

A

Positive

Negative

Zero/no

317
Q

What is a positive correlation?

A

As one variable increases so does the other

318
Q

What is a negative correlation?

A

As one variable increases, the other decreases

319
Q

What is zero/no correlation?

A

No relationship

320
Q

What is the difference between an experiment and a correlation?

A

Experiment has an IV whereas correlations don’t

321
Q

When should a correlation be drawn?

A

When they mention the word “relationship” in the scenario and there is no IV

322
Q

What is a correlation co-efficient?

A

An estimation of strong the relationship of the two variables

323
Q

What does a correlation co-efficient of 1 mean?

A

Positive correlation

324
Q

What does a correlation co-efficient of 0?

A

No relationship

325
Q

What does a correlation co-efficient of -1 mean?

A

Negative correlation

326
Q

What are the advantages of correlations?

A

Useful preliminary tool to find out strength of relationship

Relatively quick and cheap to carry out

327
Q

What are the disadvantages of correlations?

A

Cannot establish cause and effect

Could be other variables which affect the relationship

A-Level Psychology (11 decks)

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