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Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the four definitions of abnormality?

A

Statistical deviation/infrequency

Deviation from social norms

Failure to function adequately

Deviation from ideal mental health

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2
Q

What is statistical deviation/infrequency?

A

A person’s trait/thinking/behaviour is abnormal if it’s numerically (statistically) rare/uncommon/anomalous

Mathematical method for defining abnormality

Abnormality should be based on infrequency - if rare, abnormal

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3
Q

What s

A
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4
Q

Limitation of statistical infrequency - cultural bias

A

IQ

Different around the world

Varies in every culture

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5
Q

What is deviation from social norms?

A

Each culture, country and social group have own social norms

Can easily detect those who deviate from social norms

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6
Q

What are social norms?

A

Unwritten rules of beliefs, attitudes and behaviours that are considered acceptable

Provide us with expected idea of how to behave and function to provide order and predictability in society

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7
Q

Strength of deviation from social norms - practical application

A

Antisocial personality disorder (sociopath)

Show disregard for normal social behaviour

Lack guilt or regret

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8
Q

Limitation of deviation from social norms - cultural bias

A

Hearing voices

Seen has a higher power (charman)

Psychics and medians (hear voices)

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9
Q

What is failure to function adequately?

A

A person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with demands of everyday life or experience personal distress

Unable to perform behaviours necessary for day-to-day living

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10
Q

What are the characteristics defining a failure to function adequately?

A

Suffering

Maladaptiveness (danger to self)

Vividness and unconventionality (stands out)

Unpredictability and a loss of control

Irrationality/incomprehensibility

Causes observer discomfort

Violates moral/social standards

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11
Q

Strength of failure to function adequately - practical application

A

Phobias

Cannot cope with different things

Agoraphobia - open spaces

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12
Q

Limitation of failure to function adequately - cultural bias

A

“hold down a job”

In other countries not everyone should hold down a job

Women aren’t always expected to have a job

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13
Q

What is deviation from ideal mental health?

A

Rational

Realistic

Actualise - set yourself a goal and stick to it

Independent

No distress

Stress-free

Self-esteem

Successful

Adaptiveness

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14
Q

Who created the criteria for deviation from ideal mental health?

A

Jahoda

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15
Q

Strength of deviation from ideal mental health - practical application

A

OCD and phobias and depression

Irrational thoughts

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16
Q

Limitation of deviation from ideal mental health - cultural bias

A

Stress
- if not stressed, abnormal
- or bad

Success
- changes in every culture

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17
Q

What is cultural relativism?

A

View that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it’s viewed in the context of the culture which it originates

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18
Q

Limitation of definitions of abnormality - socially sensitive

A

Stigma behind mental health

Words we use aren’t great - negative

May stop people from seeking support

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19
Q

Limitation of definitions of abnormality - not sole explanation

A

Rosenhan’s study - don’t work on their own

Placed pseudo patients into a hospital

Found that doctors and nurses were unable to stop the “fake” patients

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20
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?

A

Panic - sweating, trembling, nausea

Endurance - continuing to experience more severe panic

Avoidance - avoiding anything surrounding phobia

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21
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?

A

Anxiety

Unreasonable - describes the significantly high anxiety

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22
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?

A

Selective attention - only pay attention to that phobia stimulus

Irrational beliefs - brain thinks irrationally to make the panic make sense

Cognitive distortions - distorting memories to make them feel worse

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23
Q

What is the two process model of phobias?

A

Classical conditioning - negative experience starts phobia

Operant conditioning - maintains phobia

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24
Q

What is classical conditioning in relation to phobias?

A

UCS (fear stimulus) –> UCR (anxiety)

NS (neutral stimulus) –> NR (no response)

UCS + NS –> UCR

CS (neutral is now fear stimulus) –> CR (anxiety)

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25
Q

How is a phobia maintained by operant conditioning?

A

Negative reinforcement

Maintains a learnt avoidance of phobia by removal (moving away from phobia) of the negative emotions and feelings will reinforce the behaviour

Allows individual to learn that avoiding situations will reduce negative situations

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26
Q

Strength of behavioural explanation of phobias - research evidence

A

Little Albert - Watson and Raynor

Conditioned after 6 negative experiences to fear rats/fluffy things

Affected his entire life

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27
Q

Limitation of behavioural explanation of phobias - incomplete explanation

A

Seligman 1971

Biological preparedness

Innate predisposition to acquire certain fears

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28
Q

Limitation of behavioural explanation of phobias - phobias don’t follow a trauma

A

Not all phobias are created due to bad experiences

Lots of people fear snakes but have never seen one (Sue et al)

Some people do have a bad experience with a stimulus but don’t create a phobia

Someone who is bitten by a dog doesn’t always lead to a phobia (DiNardio)

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29
Q

What are the behavioural treatments of phobias?

A

Systematic desensitisation (SD)

Flooding

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30
Q

What is SD?

A

Teach patients RELAXATION TECHNIQUES

Create an ANXIETY HIERACHY: situations that are least to most fearful with the phobia included

GRADUALLY EXPOSE patient to the anxiety hierarchy, using relaxation techniques at each stage

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31
Q

What is counter-conditioning?

A

Phobic stimulus (conditioned stimulus) paired with relaxation so it becomes and conditioned response

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32
Q

What is reciprocal inhibition?

A

Not possible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time so one emotion prevents the other

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33
Q

What is an anxiety hierarchy?

A

Fearful stimuli arranged in order from least to most frightening

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34
Q

What are some examples of relaxation techniques?

A

Deep breathing

Meditation

Mental imagery techniques

Counting

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35
Q

What is gradual exposure?

A

Patient works through the anxiety hierarchy

At each level, patient exposed to phobic stimulus in a relaxed state

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36
Q

Strength of SD - Gilroy et al

A

Followed up 42 people who had SD for spider phobia

SD less fearful than control group

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37
Q

Limitation of SD - practicality

A

Takes longer than other treatments and more expensive

If patients severely suffering, might want quick treatment

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38
Q

Strength of SD - research support

A

McGrath

75% of patients reported well to SD

Most successful part of treatments seems to be contact with feared stimulus

In vino treatment better than in vitro

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39
Q

Limitation of SD - economy

A

Due to SD taking several sessions, leads to higher cost for NHS

Means longer waiting times, meaning patients may not be able to return to work as quickly also negatively impacting the economy

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40
Q

What is flooding?

A

Exposing patient with phobia to phobic object without a gradual build up (immediate exposure)

Without option of avoidance behaviour, person quickly learns phobic object is harmless through exhaustion of their fear response

41
Q

What is extinction?

A

Patient not allowed to avoid their fear so learn it isn’t as bad as their anxiety lets them believe it is

42
Q

Limitation of flooding - ethical concerns

A

Participants and therapists rated flooding as more stressful

Ethical concerns about knowingly causing stress

Traumatic nature leads to higher attrition rates than SD

43
Q

Strength of behavioural treatments of phobias - effectiveness

A

Craske - flooding and SD were effective therapies

Choy - especially reducing physical symptoms

44
Q

Limitation of behavioural treatments of phobias - alternative therapies

A

Anti-anxiety medication

Cheaper

More passive

45
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of depression?

A

Lethargic - lack of energy

Aggression

Disruption to sleeping and eating - hypersomnia (sleeping lots), insomnia (sleeping too little), eating too much, eating too little

46
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of depression?

A

Self-esteem - low

Anger/aggression

Mood - low

47
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of depression?

A

Concentration - lack of

Absolute thinking

Negative

48
Q

What type of psychologists were Ellis and Beck?

A

Cognitive psychologists

49
Q

Who believed that people suffering from depression had faulty information processing?

A

Ellis and Beck

50
Q

What is faulty information processing?

A

Interpret things badly

51
Q

Who believed that people suffering from depression created negative schemas?

A

Ellis and Beck

52
Q

What does creating negative schemas mean?

A

A schema is a “package” of ideas and information developed through experience

Only remembers or focuses on negative experiences

53
Q

What is Beck’s cognitive triad of depression?

A

Negative views for the self (“I am a failure”)

Negative views of the future (“It’s never going to get better”)

Negative views of the world (“The world is a cold, dark place”)

54
Q

Strength of Beck’s explanation - supporting evidence

A

Grazdi and Terry

65 pregnant women tested for cognitive vulnerability and depression before and after birth

Found that women who were rated high in cognitive vulnerability were more likely to suffer from post-natal depression

55
Q

Limitation of Beck’s explanation - reductionism

A

Doesn’t explain all aspects

Some depressive patients experience Cottard syndrome where they have delusions that they are zombies/dead/ghosts

56
Q

What is Ellis’ ABC model of depression?

A

Activating events - negative or significant, stressful events

Beliefs - irrational beliefs

Consequences - negative emotional and behavioural

57
Q

Strength of Ellis’ explanation - research evidence

A

Irrational thinking

Alloy and Abraham

People with depression are more accurate in their estimations of disasters

People with depression are realists

58
Q

Strength of cognitive explanations of depression - practical application

A

Ellis - REBT

Beck - CBT

59
Q

What are the cognitive treatments of depression?

A

CBT

REBT

60
Q

What does REBT stand for?

A

Rational Emotional Behaviour Therapy

61
Q

What is REBT?

A

Action-orientated psychotherapy

Teaches individuals to identify, challenge and replace their irrational thoughts and beliefs with healthier thoughts that promote emotional well-being and goal achievements

Highly directive, persuasive and confrontational

62
Q

What are the types of arguments used in REBT?

A

Empirical

Logical

63
Q

What is a empirical argument?

A

Disputing where there is evidence to support the irrational belief

64
Q

What is a logical argument?

A

Disputing whether the negative thought actually follows the facts

65
Q

What does REBT believe about a therapist-client relationship?

A

Therapist is teacher so no need for warm, personal relationship with client

66
Q

What do the different methods of REBT depend on?

A

Personality of the patient

67
Q

Strength of REBT - research support

A

Ellis found that an average patient took 27 sessions of therapy

From these patients, 90% success rate (reduction or elimination of symptoms)

68
Q

Counterpoint REBT - research support

A

Researcher bias/investigator effects

69
Q

What does CBT stand for?

A

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

70
Q

What is CBT?

A

Talking therapy

Idea that the client identifies their own unhelpful beliefs and then proves them wrong so, as a result, their beliefs begin to change

Client discovers misconceptions by themselves

71
Q

What are some examples of behavioural activation?

A

Homework

Journal writing

Patient-as-scientist

72
Q

What does patient-as-scientist mean?

A

Patient creates their own activity to challenge their own belief

73
Q

What does CBT believe about a therapist-client relationship?

A

Stresses quality of the therapeutic relationship

74
Q

What do the different methods of CBT depend on?

A

Particular disorder

75
Q

Strength of CBT - effective treatment

A

Better with drugs

March et al

Compared effects of CBT with antidepressants and combination of two in 327 adolescents

After 32 weeks

CBT = 81%

Antidepressants = 81%

CBT and antidepressants = 86%

76
Q

AO3 CBT - comparison with drug treatment

A

CBT
+ long-term impact
- expensive (economy)
- doesn’t work if lethargic

Drug treatment
- symptoms can come back
+ cheap (economy)
+ take no effort (low effort)
- side effects

77
Q

Limitation of CBT - suitability

A

CBT less suitable for people with high levels of irrational beliefs that are rigid and resistant to change

May find situation too stressful and not be able to resolve their issues in therapy

78
Q

What does OCD stand for?

A

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

79
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of OCD?

A

Compulsions

Avoidance - avoid situations triggering anxiety

Repetitive action

Reduce anxiety

80
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of OCD?

A

Depression - low mood, lack of enjoyment and limiting

Anxiety and distress - worst-case scenario being repeated

Guilt - intrusive and obsessive thoughts are negative about people

81
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD?

A

Obsessive thoughts - how frequent it is, leading to compulsion

Intrusive thoughts - negative contents, can be one-off

Insight - awareness that what they do is irrational

82
Q

What are monozygotic twins?

A

Identical twins

One egg and one sperm

100% DNA similarity

83
Q

What are dizygotic twins?

A

Non-identical twins

Two eggs and two sperm

50% DNA similarity

84
Q

What are candidate genes of OCD?

A

Increase the vulnerability of having OCD

Believed to interfere with serotonin in the brain causing symptoms

85
Q

What is the genetic explanation of OCD?

A

37% of OCD patients had parents with OCD
21% of OCD patients had siblings with OCD

OCD is polygenic which means there are multiple candidate genes which could affect likelihood of suffering with OCD, potentially 230 genes involved

Could be due to there being lots of different types of OCD

86
Q

Strength of genetic explanation of OCD - research support

A

Nestadt et al

Reviewed twin studies and heritability of OCD

MZ twins showed 68% inheritability

DZ twins showed 31% inheritability

87
Q

Limitation of genetic explanation of OCD - nature vs nurture

A

Cromer research

Genes not whole explanation

Nature = OCD purely caused by genetic factors

Nurture = there is an environmental element which causes OCD

Diathesis-stress model = genes give you a vulnerability of getting OCD but you need an environmental trigger to suffer from the symptoms

88
Q

What does serotonin do?

A

Makes you calm

89
Q

What is the neural explanation of OCD?

A

Some psychologists believe OCD sufferers have reduced serotonin levels

Reduction of serotonin leads to impaired mental functions (COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS) and mood regulation (EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS)

90
Q

How is the decision making system affected in individuals with OCD?

A

Frontal lobe (responsible for logical thinking and decision making) is impaired

Left parahippocampal gyrus (in charge of emotions - NEGATIVE EMOTIONS) is abnormally structured

91
Q

Strength of neural explanation of OCD - practical application

A

Therapy on serotonin

Using anti-depressants which work on serotonin levels have caused improvement in OCD symptoms

92
Q

Limitation of neural explanation of OCD - cause and effect

A

Cannot establish whether it is brain areas/neurotransmitters which cause OCD or whether OCD symptoms cause the changes

Lacks validity - as OCD could be caused by other primary factors

Scientists would need to study people’s brains before they suffer with OCD symptoms to understand if the brain is the cause

93
Q

What are SSRIs?

A

Drug therapy

To have “normal” serotonin levels, all of your receptor sits have to be hit

For OCD patients because they have low serotonin, not all sites are hit

SO SSRI BLOCKS THE REUPTAKE SO THEY HAVE TO KEEP HITTING THE RECEPTOR SITES

94
Q

What is a tricyclic?

A

Antidepressant drug

Same effect as SSRIs but side effects and be more severe

95
Q

What is SNRI?

A

Increase serotonin and noradrenaline

96
Q

Limitation of drug treatments of OCD - side effects

A

Indigestion, blurred vision, loss of sex drive

Patients may not continue drug treatment

97
Q

Strength of drug therapy for OCD - research support

A

Soomro et al

Reviewed 17 studies of SSRI

Either given SSRI or placebo

70% improved

Other 30% were helped with alternative drugs or combination of drugs and psychological therapies

98
Q

AO3 drug therapies of OCD - practicality

A

+ very cheap

+ very little effort

  • CBT gives more long-term results

Psychology (11 decks)

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