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A-Level Psychology > Psychopathology > Flashcards

Psychopathology Flashcards

1
Q

What are the four definitions of abnormality?

A

Statistical deviation/infrequency

Deviation from social norms

Failure to function adequately

Deviation from ideal mental health

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2
Q

What is statistical deviation/infrequency?

A

A person’s trait/thinking/behaviour is abnormal if it’s numerically (statistically) rare/uncommon/anomalous

Mathematical method for defining abnormality

Abnormality should be based on infrequency - if rare, abnormal

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3
Q

What s

A
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4
Q

Limitation of statistical infrequency - cultural bias

A

IQ

Different around the world

Varies in every culture

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5
Q

What is deviation from social norms?

A

Each culture, country and social group have own social norms

Can easily detect those who deviate from social norms

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6
Q

What are social norms?

A

Unwritten rules of beliefs, attitudes and behaviours that are considered acceptable

Provide us with expected idea of how to behave and function to provide order and predictability in society

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7
Q

Strength of deviation from social norms - practical application

A

Antisocial personality disorder (sociopath)

Show disregard for normal social behaviour

Lack guilt or regret

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8
Q

Limitation of deviation from social norms - cultural bias

A

Hearing voices

Seen has a higher power (charman)

Psychics and medians (hear voices)

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9
Q

What is failure to function adequately?

A

A person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with demands of everyday life or experience personal distress

Unable to perform behaviours necessary for day-to-day living

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10
Q

What are the characteristics defining a failure to function adequately?

A

Suffering

Maladaptiveness (danger to self)

Vividness and unconventionality (stands out)

Unpredictability and a loss of control

Irrationality/incomprehensibility

Causes observer discomfort

Violates moral/social standards

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11
Q

Strength of failure to function adequately - practical application

A

Phobias

Cannot cope with different things

Agoraphobia - open spaces

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12
Q

Limitation of failure to function adequately - cultural bias

A

“hold down a job”

In other countries not everyone should hold down a job

Women aren’t always expected to have a job

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13
Q

What is deviation from ideal mental health?

A

Rational

Realistic

Actualise - set yourself a goal and stick to it

Independent

No distress

Stress-free

Self-esteem

Successful

Adaptiveness

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14
Q

Who created the criteria for deviation from ideal mental health?

A

Jahoda

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15
Q

Strength of deviation from ideal mental health - practical application

A

OCD and phobias and depression

Irrational thoughts

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16
Q

Limitation of deviation from ideal mental health - cultural bias

A

Stress
- if not stressed, abnormal
- or bad

Success
- changes in every culture

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17
Q

What is cultural relativism?

A

View that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it’s viewed in the context of the culture which it originates

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18
Q

Limitation of definitions of abnormality - socially sensitive

A

Stigma behind mental health

Words we use aren’t great - negative

May stop people from seeking support

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19
Q

Limitation of definitions of abnormality - not sole explanation

A

Rosenhan’s study - don’t work on their own

Placed pseudo patients into a hospital

Found that doctors and nurses were unable to stop the “fake” patients

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20
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?

A

Panic - sweating, trembling, nausea

Endurance - continuing to experience more severe panic

Avoidance - avoiding anything surrounding phobia

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21
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?

A

Anxiety

Unreasonable - describes the significantly high anxiety

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22
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?

A

Selective attention - only pay attention to that phobia stimulus

Irrational beliefs - brain thinks irrationally to make the panic make sense

Cognitive distortions - distorting memories to make them feel worse

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23
Q

What is the two process model of phobias?

A

Classical conditioning - negative experience starts phobia

Operant conditioning - maintains phobia

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24
Q

What is classical conditioning in relation to phobias?

A

UCS (fear stimulus) –> UCR (anxiety)

NS (neutral stimulus) –> NR (no response)

UCS + NS –> UCR

CS (neutral is now fear stimulus) –> CR (anxiety)

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25
How is a phobia maintained by operant conditioning?
Negative reinforcement Maintains a learnt avoidance of phobia by removal (moving away from phobia) of the negative emotions and feelings will reinforce the behaviour Allows individual to learn that avoiding situations will reduce negative situations
26
Strength of behavioural explanation of phobias - research evidence
Little Albert - Watson and Raynor Conditioned after 6 negative experiences to fear rats/fluffy things Affected his entire life
27
Limitation of behavioural explanation of phobias - incomplete explanation
Seligman 1971 Biological preparedness Innate predisposition to acquire certain fears
28
Limitation of behavioural explanation of phobias - phobias don't follow a trauma
Not all phobias are created due to bad experiences Lots of people fear snakes but have never seen one (Sue et al) Some people do have a bad experience with a stimulus but don't create a phobia Someone who is bitten by a dog doesn't always lead to a phobia (DiNardio)
29
What are the behavioural treatments of phobias?
Systematic desensitisation (SD) Flooding
30
What is SD?
Teach patients RELAXATION TECHNIQUES Create an ANXIETY HIERACHY: situations that are least to most fearful with the phobia included GRADUALLY EXPOSE patient to the anxiety hierarchy, using relaxation techniques at each stage
31
What is counter-conditioning?
Phobic stimulus (conditioned stimulus) paired with relaxation so it becomes and conditioned response
32
What is reciprocal inhibition?
Not possible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time so one emotion prevents the other
33
What is an anxiety hierarchy?
Fearful stimuli arranged in order from least to most frightening
34
What are some examples of relaxation techniques?
Deep breathing Meditation Mental imagery techniques Counting
35
What is gradual exposure?
Patient works through the anxiety hierarchy At each level, patient exposed to phobic stimulus in a relaxed state
36
Strength of SD - Gilroy et al
Followed up 42 people who had SD for spider phobia SD less fearful than control group
37
Limitation of SD - practicality
Takes longer than other treatments and more expensive If patients severely suffering, might want quick treatment
38
Strength of SD - research support
McGrath 75% of patients reported well to SD Most successful part of treatments seems to be contact with feared stimulus In vino treatment better than in vitro
39
Limitation of SD - economy
Due to SD taking several sessions, leads to higher cost for NHS Means longer waiting times, meaning patients may not be able to return to work as quickly also negatively impacting the economy
40
What is flooding?
Exposing patient with phobia to phobic object without a gradual build up (immediate exposure) Without option of avoidance behaviour, person quickly learns phobic object is harmless through exhaustion of their fear response
41
What is extinction?
Patient not allowed to avoid their fear so learn it isn't as bad as their anxiety lets them believe it is
42
Limitation of flooding - ethical concerns
Participants and therapists rated flooding as more stressful Ethical concerns about knowingly causing stress Traumatic nature leads to higher attrition rates than SD
43
Strength of behavioural treatments of phobias - effectiveness
Craske - flooding and SD were effective therapies Choy - especially reducing physical symptoms
44
Limitation of behavioural treatments of phobias - alternative therapies
Anti-anxiety medication Cheaper More passive
45
What are the behavioural characteristics of depression?
Lethargic - lack of energy Aggression Disruption to sleeping and eating - hypersomnia (sleeping lots), insomnia (sleeping too little), eating too much, eating too little
46
What are the emotional characteristics of depression?
Self-esteem - low Anger/aggression Mood - low
47
What are the cognitive characteristics of depression?
Concentration - lack of Absolute thinking Negative
48
What type of psychologists were Ellis and Beck?
Cognitive psychologists
49
Who believed that people suffering from depression had faulty information processing?
Ellis and Beck
50
What is faulty information processing?
Interpret things badly
51
Who believed that people suffering from depression created negative schemas?
Ellis and Beck
52
What does creating negative schemas mean?
A schema is a "package" of ideas and information developed through experience Only remembers or focuses on negative experiences
53
What is Beck's cognitive triad of depression?
Negative views for the self ("I am a failure") Negative views of the future ("It's never going to get better") Negative views of the world ("The world is a cold, dark place")
54
Strength of Beck's explanation - supporting evidence
Grazdi and Terry 65 pregnant women tested for cognitive vulnerability and depression before and after birth Found that women who were rated high in cognitive vulnerability were more likely to suffer from post-natal depression
55
Limitation of Beck's explanation - reductionism
Doesn't explain all aspects Some depressive patients experience Cottard syndrome where they have delusions that they are zombies/dead/ghosts
56
What is Ellis' ABC model of depression?
Activating events - negative or significant, stressful events Beliefs - irrational beliefs Consequences - negative emotional and behavioural
57
Strength of Ellis' explanation - research evidence
Irrational thinking Alloy and Abraham People with depression are more accurate in their estimations of disasters People with depression are realists
58
Strength of cognitive explanations of depression - practical application
Ellis - REBT Beck - CBT
59
What are the cognitive treatments of depression?
CBT REBT
60
What does REBT stand for?
Rational Emotional Behaviour Therapy
61
What is REBT?
Action-orientated psychotherapy Teaches individuals to identify, challenge and replace their irrational thoughts and beliefs with healthier thoughts that promote emotional well-being and goal achievements Highly directive, persuasive and confrontational
62
What are the types of arguments used in REBT?
Empirical Logical
63
What is a empirical argument?
Disputing where there is evidence to support the irrational belief
64
What is a logical argument?
Disputing whether the negative thought actually follows the facts
65
What does REBT believe about a therapist-client relationship?
Therapist is teacher so no need for warm, personal relationship with client
66
What do the different methods of REBT depend on?
Personality of the patient
67
Strength of REBT - research support
Ellis found that an average patient took 27 sessions of therapy From these patients, 90% success rate (reduction or elimination of symptoms)
68
Counterpoint REBT - research support
Researcher bias/investigator effects
69
What does CBT stand for?
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
70
What is CBT?
Talking therapy Idea that the client identifies their own unhelpful beliefs and then proves them wrong so, as a result, their beliefs begin to change Client discovers misconceptions by themselves
71
What are some examples of behavioural activation?
Homework Journal writing Patient-as-scientist
72
What does patient-as-scientist mean?
Patient creates their own activity to challenge their own belief
73
What does CBT believe about a therapist-client relationship?
Stresses quality of the therapeutic relationship
74
What do the different methods of CBT depend on?
Particular disorder
75
Strength of CBT - effective treatment
Better with drugs March et al Compared effects of CBT with antidepressants and combination of two in 327 adolescents After 32 weeks CBT = 81% Antidepressants = 81% CBT and antidepressants = 86%
76
AO3 CBT - comparison with drug treatment
CBT + long-term impact - expensive (economy) - doesn't work if lethargic Drug treatment - symptoms can come back + cheap (economy) + take no effort (low effort) - side effects
77
Limitation of CBT - suitability
CBT less suitable for people with high levels of irrational beliefs that are rigid and resistant to change May find situation too stressful and not be able to resolve their issues in therapy
78
What does OCD stand for?
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
79
What are the behavioural characteristics of OCD?
Compulsions Avoidance - avoid situations triggering anxiety Repetitive action Reduce anxiety
80
What are the emotional characteristics of OCD?
Depression - low mood, lack of enjoyment and limiting Anxiety and distress - worst-case scenario being repeated Guilt - intrusive and obsessive thoughts are negative about people
81
What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD?
Obsessive thoughts - how frequent it is, leading to compulsion Intrusive thoughts - negative contents, can be one-off Insight - awareness that what they do is irrational
82
What are monozygotic twins?
Identical twins One egg and one sperm 100% DNA similarity
83
What are dizygotic twins?
Non-identical twins Two eggs and two sperm 50% DNA similarity
84
What are candidate genes of OCD?
Increase the vulnerability of having OCD Believed to interfere with serotonin in the brain causing symptoms
85
What is the genetic explanation of OCD?
37% of OCD patients had parents with OCD 21% of OCD patients had siblings with OCD OCD is polygenic which means there are multiple candidate genes which could affect likelihood of suffering with OCD, potentially 230 genes involved Could be due to there being lots of different types of OCD
86
Strength of genetic explanation of OCD - research support
Nestadt et al Reviewed twin studies and heritability of OCD MZ twins showed 68% inheritability DZ twins showed 31% inheritability
87
Limitation of genetic explanation of OCD - nature vs nurture
Cromer research Genes not whole explanation Nature = OCD purely caused by genetic factors Nurture = there is an environmental element which causes OCD Diathesis-stress model = genes give you a vulnerability of getting OCD but you need an environmental trigger to suffer from the symptoms
88
What does serotonin do?
Makes you calm
89
What is the neural explanation of OCD?
Some psychologists believe OCD sufferers have reduced serotonin levels Reduction of serotonin leads to impaired mental functions (COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS) and mood regulation (EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS)
90
How is the decision making system affected in individuals with OCD?
Frontal lobe (responsible for logical thinking and decision making) is impaired Left parahippocampal gyrus (in charge of emotions - NEGATIVE EMOTIONS) is abnormally structured
91
Strength of neural explanation of OCD - practical application
Therapy on serotonin Using anti-depressants which work on serotonin levels have caused improvement in OCD symptoms
92
Limitation of neural explanation of OCD - cause and effect
Cannot establish whether it is brain areas/neurotransmitters which cause OCD or whether OCD symptoms cause the changes Lacks validity - as OCD could be caused by other primary factors Scientists would need to study people's brains before they suffer with OCD symptoms to understand if the brain is the cause
93
What are SSRIs?
Drug therapy To have "normal" serotonin levels, all of your receptor sits have to be hit For OCD patients because they have low serotonin, not all sites are hit SO SSRI BLOCKS THE REUPTAKE SO THEY HAVE TO KEEP HITTING THE RECEPTOR SITES
94
What is a tricyclic?
Antidepressant drug Same effect as SSRIs but side effects and be more severe
95
What is SNRI?
Increase serotonin and noradrenaline
96
Limitation of drug treatments of OCD - side effects
Indigestion, blurred vision, loss of sex drive Patients may not continue drug treatment
97
Strength of drug therapy for OCD - research support
Soomro et al Reviewed 17 studies of SSRI Either given SSRI or placebo 70% improved Other 30% were helped with alternative drugs or combination of drugs and psychological therapies
98
AO3 drug therapies of OCD - practicality
+ very cheap + very little effort - CBT gives more long-term results

A-Level Psychology (11 decks)

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