Issues and Debates Flashcards
Nature vs Nurture; Gender Bias; Idiographic vs Nomothetic; Cultural Bias; Holism vs Reductionism; Ethical Implications and Socially Sensitive Research; Free Will vs Determinism
What does ‘nature’ refer to?
Internal factors
The basic or inherent features, character or qualities of something
What are some examples of ‘nature’?
Genetics
Hormones
Brain structure
What is heredity?
Passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another
What does the nature view believe?
Heredity is more influential
What is the name for the group that strongly believes in nature?
Nativists
Who is an example of an nativist?
Descartes
What do nativists believe?
Most important influence on human characteristics are innate (born pre-programmed with characteristics that will influence your behaviour)
Understand environment will influence your behaviour but believe most important is your biology
Would nativists believe there are more universal or culturally different behaviours?
Universal
Why do nativists argue there are more universal behaviours?
Due to biology and how the brain and body are structured
Topic - nature
Genetic explanation of OCD
Genes cause OCD (candidate genes)
More scientific research
Limitation - problems of nature
Problems of twin studies
What does ‘nurture’ refer to?
External factors
Upbringing, education, environment contrasted with inborn characteristics as an influence on or determinant of personality
What is environment?
The surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal or plant lives or operates
What is the name for the group that strongly believes in nurture?
Empiricists
What does the nurture view believe?
Learning, environment and reinforcement is more influential
Who is an example of an empiricist?
John Locke
What does empiricists believe?
We are born as blank slates
Understand biology influences behaviour but believe most important influence is your environment
Do empiricists believe that are more universal or culturally different behaviours?
Culturally differences
Why do empiricists believe there are more culturally different behaviours?
Due to different experiences
Topic - nurture
Little Albert study
Classical conditioning as an explanation of phobias
Limitation - problems of nurture
Less scientific in research method and data
Confounding variable of nature
Rank the approaches from most nativist to most empiricist
Nativist
- biological
- evolutionary
- psychodynamic
- cognitive
- humanistic
- SLT
- behaviourist
Empiricist
What is the compromise between nature and nurture?
Interactionist approach
What is the interactionist approach?
The view that both nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour
Topic - interactionist approach
Diathesis-stress model of OCD/SZ
What is gender bias?
Showing a preference to one sex over another
What is alpha bias?
Exaggerating the differences between men and women
What are the differences typically in alpha bias?
Deterministic
Devalue women
Topic - alpha bias
Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation
Exaggerates differences as says only females can be primary caregivers and males cannot
Which is incorrect
What is beta bias?
Minimising the differences between men and women
What do beta bias theories usually assume?
Male findings can apply equally to females
Topic - beta bias
Milgram study
Assumed females would show the same obedience levels as males
Sheridan and King puppies
- 100% of females shocked puppies
- 54% of males shocked puppies
AO3 - equality - avoiding beta bias
Hare-Mustin and Marecek
Point out that asking for equality for men and women will ignore individual sexes needs
Equal parental leave from work could ignore the physical demand that women have from childbirth
What is androcentrism?
Making male behaviour the norm
What is oestrocentrism?
Making female behaviour the norm
What is gender universality?
Creating a theory which explains both male and female behaviours
AO3 - evolution
Darwin’s theory of natural selection states that men will have biological drive to mate with more than one female, whereas women should only mate with one male
DNA evidence supports good adaptive strategy for females is to mate with more than male
What are the solutions for gender bias?
Use both males and females in sample
When reporting, in results, say “it’s only to explain male/female behaviour and cannot be generalised”
Limitation - problem of using gender bias research
Can lead to devaluation of women and discrimination
Can lead to discrimination of men in child custody cases
Limitation - universal research/real differences
Evolutionary explanations of aggression
Explains why males are physically aggressive when females are verbally aggressive
What sort of sample does a nomothetic approach have?
Large sample
What sampling is used in nomothetic reserach?
Involve a method of sample selection to give representativeness of a larger problem
Random, stratified
Would the researchers use a testable hypothesis in nomothetic research?
Yes
How much data would collected in a nomothetic approach?
Large amount
What will the analysis involve in a nomothetic approach?
Quantitative methods (statistical methods)
What conclusions are drawn in nomothetic research?
Conclusions in relation to a wider population
Making general laws of behaviour
Approach - nomothetic approach
Biological
Behaviourist
Topic - nomothetic approach
Van Ijzendoorn
Able to generalise
More scientific/objective
Limitation of nomothetic approach - loss of individual experience/cannot explain individual differences
Nomothetic approach focuses on general laws and may “lose the whole person” within psychology
Knowing about a 1% lifetime risk of SZ says little about disorder - might be useful for therapeutic ideas
In its search for generalities, nomothetic approach may sometimes fail to relate to “experience”
What kind of sample is used in the idiographic approach?
Small sample
Case studies
What sampling method is used in the idiographic approach?
Volunteer
Opportunity
Does the researcher have a testable hypothesis in an idiographic approach?
No
What data is collected in idiographic research?
Large amount of detailed data
What does analysis involve in the idiographic approach?
Qualitative data (self-report methods)
What conclusions are drawn in idiographic research?
Conclusions and assumptions about one person
Approach - idiographic approach
Humanistic
Psychodynamic
Topic - idiographic approach
Case studies
Clive Wearing - update theory of LTM
Multiple factors/more detailed
Name case studies that have been studied
KF
HM
Clive Wearing
Little Albert
Little Hans
Phineas Gage
Romanian orphans
Jeany
Czech twins
Kim Peake
Limitation of idiographic approach - problems with case studies
Lack of practical application as the theory is only for that person
Unhelpful as has no usability
Cannot be replicated
Cannot be generalised
Less scientific
What is the compromise for nomothetic vs idiographic?
- nomothetic approach
- averages - general law/theory
- anomalies - case studies/idiographic approach
- update theories to explain anomalies
What is cultural relativism?
Appreciating that behaviour varies between cultures
What is ethnocentrism?
Making one culture’s behaviour the norm
Topic - ethnocentrism
Asch’s study
Believed all countries should act the same way
36.8% conformity
Smith and Bond
- found differences in cultural differences in conformity
- Belgium = 14%
- Fiji = 53%
What is cultural holism?
Considering all aspects of experience, including culture
What is cultural universality?
Believing that some behaviours are the same for all cultures
Topic - cultural universality
Authoritarian personality
What is cultural alpha bias?
Exaggerating the difference between cultures
What is cultural beta bias?
Minimising the difference between cultures
Topic - cultural bias - Strange Situation
Ethnocentrism - Takahashi “disproves”
Babies were very distressed when mothers left, they were all insecure-resistant
Japanese babies aren’t left alone for first 3 years
Problematic method - not culturally diverse
Counterpoint cultural bias - Strange Situation
Van Ijzendoorn
Meta-analysis did find universal result (secure)
Limitation - showing universal research
Takano and Osaka
Reviewed 15 studies that investigated differences in results from US studies and Japanese replications
Found no difference
Limitation - problems with cultural bias research
Can lead to discrimination - mental health diagnosis
Cochrane and Sashidharan
- In America, African-Caribbean immigrant 7x more likely to be diagnosed with mental illness
What are the solutions for cultural bias?
Don’t attempt extrapolate findings/theories to cultures not represented in research sample
Use researchers native to culture being investigated
Carry out cross-cultural research
Don’t assume universal norms/standards across different cultures
Be sensitive to cultural norms/standards when designing research/reporting findings
Study single culture to under that culture (emic approach)
Taking a reflexive approach (i.e. constantly reflecting on own biases when carrying out research)
What is holism?
Exploring the WHOLE behaviour in the CONTEXT of the situation
What is the holistic view?
Cannot predict how whole system will behave just from a knowledge of the individual components
Understand complexities in human behaviour (Gestalt psychologists look at perception through holistic approach)
Approach - holism
Humanistic
Topic - holism
Diathesis stress model of OCD/SZ - genes and environmental trauma cause OCD/SZ
Social influence - Asch/Zimbardo
Limitation of holism - less scientific
Less scientific in their methods of research
Can lead to abstract ideas which have not been thoroughly tested
Strength of holism - group behaviour
Cannot be explained at an individual level
Effects of conformity cannot be understood by studying individuals
Milgram, Asch, Zimbardo
What is reductionism?
Explaining a phenomenon by breaking it into simpler parts and studying the underlying elements
What are the two types of reductionism?
Biological
Environmental
What is biological reductionism?
Human behaviour can be reduced down to a physical level (neurons, hormones, neurotransmitters, etc)
Topic - biological reductionism
Biological explanations of OCD
What is another name for environmental reductionism?
Stimulus-response reductionism
What is environmental reductionism?
Human behaviour can be reduced down to a “response”
A simple relationship between behaviour and event
Topic - environmental reductionism
Little Albert
Behavioural explanations of phobias
Limitation of reductionism - complexities of behaviour
Misses complexity of many behaviours and fails to take into account context of behaviour
Wolpe
- treated a women with a phobia of insects with SD however her phobia never improved
- no classical conditioning
- placed fear of husband onto fear of insects
Rank the sciences from reductionist to holistic
Reductionist
- molecules and atoms (physics)
- cells and neurotransmitters (chemistry)
- organs (biology)
- behaviour of individuals (psychology)
- behaviour of groups (sociology)
Holistic
What is the compromise for reductionism vs holism?
Levels of explanation
What are levels of explanation?
Explanations vary from those at a lower or fundamental level focusing on basic components or units to those at a higher more holistic multivariable level
What can you NOT talk about in ethical implications and socially sensitive research?
DO NOT MENTION ETHICAL ISSUES
What are the ethical implications that need to be considered?
Implications
Uses/public policy
Validity of the research
What does implications mean?
Wider impacts after PUBLISHING research
What is meant by the uses/public policy or research?
What is the research going to be used for?
Could it be used by the wrong people?
What is meant by the validity of the research in ethical implications?
Are there any biases?
Any chance of fake results?
What is socially sensitive research?
Any psychological research that has ethical implications that go beyond the research situation and affect people or groups in the wider society
What people/groups might potentially be affected by socially sensitive research?
Participants who took part in the research
Families or other people close to participants
Subgroups or cultures within society (ethnic minorities etc)
Researchers and their institutions
Topic - EI and SSR - Bowlby’s monotropic theory
Cost
- told fathers they didn’t mean anything
- custody case bias against fathers
- parental responsibility
- mothers blamed for things
- working mothers blamed
Benefit
- patient-family accommodation
- waiting times in hospitals
Topic - EI and SSR - genetic explanation of OCD
Cost
- blames parents
Benefit
- can do gene screening for quicker diagnosis
Topic - EI and SSR - aggression gene
Cost
- discrimination and legal system
Benefit
- can offer therapy
- help support
Limitations - problems of SSR
Eugenics
In 1920s, large number of US states enacted legislation that led to compulsory sterilisation of many of its citizens
People judged to be feeble-minded and a drain on society (low intelligence, drug/alcohol addicts, people with mental health disorders)
Some psychologists argued people unfit to breed
For social control
Limitations - problems if we don’t have SSR
Stanley and Sieber
- SSR research is a necessity
- researchers need to take more responsibility
Peer reviews continuously update is needed to help increase understanding
What are the solutions for ethical implications and socially sensitive research?
Anonymity
Peer reviews
Checking ethical committees and guidelines
What is free will?
Where a person has 100% control over their behaviour
The power of acting without the constraint of necessity or fate; the ability to act at one’s own discretion
The idea we have options, choices
Approach - free will
Humanistic
Topic - free will
Rotter - internal locus of control
We make all our own decisions
Robert et al
- adolescents with ILOC are less likely to develop depression and more likely to have better mental health compared to those with an ELOC
Limitation of free will - testing free will
Very hard to test free will
Libet’s experiment didn’t show proof of free will
What is (hard) determinism?
The general idea that traits and behaviours are outside our control, due to factors either INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL over which we have no control
What is biological determinism?
The idea that traits and behaviours are governed by internal factors like genes, NEUROCHEMISTRY, BRAIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Biology is destiny
Topic - biological determinism
Biological explanations of OCD
What is environmental determinism?
The idea that traits and behaviours are governed by external forces such as experience, UPBRINGING, LEARNING, schools, parents, peers, etc
Topic - environmental determinism
Behavioural explanation of phobias
What is psychic determinism?
The idea that traits and behaviours are governed by UNCONSCIOUS INSTINCTS and drives
The cause of behaviour is rooted in CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES
Topic - psychic determinism
Oedipus/Electra complex
Limitation of determinism - legal system
Legal system doesn’t believe in determinism
What are causal explanations?
Establish cause and effect
Controlled environment - reduced extraneous variables
Change of IV impact on DV
Topic - causal explanations
Loftus and Palmer
Cause = leading questions
Effect = affect accuracy of EWT (reduced)
Controlled = lab study, same distractor questions, same critical question just with different verbs, same video, same leading question in a group
IV = critical verb used (smashed, bumped, contacted, collided, hit)
DV = estimated speed of car in mph
What is the compromise in free will vs determinism?
Soft determinism
What is soft determinism?
The idea that behaviours/traits/actions are to an extent governed by internal/external forces but, despite this, we still have some element of control over our behaviours/actions/traits
