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Issues and Debates Flashcards

Nature vs Nurture; Gender Bias; Idiographic vs Nomothetic; Cultural Bias; Holism vs Reductionism; Ethical Implications and Socially Sensitive Research; Free Will vs Determinism

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1
Q

What does ‘nature’ refer to?

A

Internal factors

The basic or inherent features, character or qualities of something

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2
Q

What are some examples of ‘nature’?

A

Genetics

Hormones

Brain structure

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3
Q

What is heredity?

A

Passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another

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4
Q

What does the nature view believe?

A

Heredity is more influential

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5
Q

What is the name for the group that strongly believes in nature?

A

Nativists

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6
Q

Who is an example of an nativist?

A

Descartes

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7
Q

What do nativists believe?

A

Most important influence on human characteristics are innate (born pre-programmed with characteristics that will influence your behaviour)

Understand environment will influence your behaviour but believe most important is your biology

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8
Q

Would nativists believe there are more universal or culturally different behaviours?

A

Universal

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9
Q

Why do nativists argue there are more universal behaviours?

A

Due to biology and how the brain and body are structured

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10
Q

Topic - nature

A

Genetic explanation of OCD

Genes cause OCD (candidate genes)

More scientific research

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11
Q

Limitation - problems of nature

A

Problems of twin studies

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12
Q

What does ‘nurture’ refer to?

A

External factors

Upbringing, education, environment contrasted with inborn characteristics as an influence on or determinant of personality

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13
Q

What is environment?

A

The surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal or plant lives or operates

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14
Q

What is the name for the group that strongly believes in nurture?

A

Empiricists

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15
Q

What does the nurture view believe?

A

Learning, environment and reinforcement is more influential

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16
Q

Who is an example of an empiricist?

A

John Locke

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17
Q

What does empiricists believe?

A

We are born as blank slates

Understand biology influences behaviour but believe most important influence is your environment

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18
Q

Do empiricists believe that are more universal or culturally different behaviours?

A

Culturally differences

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19
Q

Why do empiricists believe there are more culturally different behaviours?

A

Due to different experiences

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20
Q

Topic - nurture

A

Little Albert study

Classical conditioning as an explanation of phobias

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21
Q

Limitation - problems of nurture

A

Less scientific in research method and data

Confounding variable of nature

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22
Q

Rank the approaches from most nativist to most empiricist

A

Nativist

  • biological
  • evolutionary
  • psychodynamic
  • cognitive
  • humanistic
  • SLT
  • behaviourist

Empiricist

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23
Q

What is the compromise between nature and nurture?

A

Interactionist approach

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24
Q

What is the interactionist approach?

A

The view that both nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour

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25
Q

Topic - interactionist approach

A

Diathesis-stress model of OCD/SZ

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26
Q

What is gender bias?

A

Showing a preference to one sex over another

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27
Q

What is alpha bias?

A

Exaggerating the differences between men and women

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28
Q

What are the differences typically in alpha bias?

A

Deterministic

Devalue women

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29
Q

Topic - alpha bias

A

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation

Exaggerates differences as says only females can be primary caregivers and males cannot

Which is incorrect

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30
Q

What is beta bias?

A

Minimising the differences between men and women

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31
Q

What do beta bias theories usually assume?

A

Male findings can apply equally to females

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32
Q

Topic - beta bias

A

Milgram study

Assumed females would show the same obedience levels as males

Sheridan and King puppies
- 100% of females shocked puppies
- 54% of males shocked puppies

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33
Q

AO3 - equality - avoiding beta bias

A

Hare-Mustin and Marecek

Point out that asking for equality for men and women will ignore individual sexes needs

Equal parental leave from work could ignore the physical demand that women have from childbirth

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34
Q

What is androcentrism?

A

Making male behaviour the norm

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35
Q

What is oestrocentrism?

A

Making female behaviour the norm

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36
Q

What is gender universality?

A

Creating a theory which explains both male and female behaviours

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37
Q

AO3 - evolution

A

Darwin’s theory of natural selection states that men will have biological drive to mate with more than one female, whereas women should only mate with one male

DNA evidence supports good adaptive strategy for females is to mate with more than male

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38
Q

What are the solutions for gender bias?

A

Use both males and females in sample

When reporting, in results, say “it’s only to explain male/female behaviour and cannot be generalised”

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39
Q

Limitation - problem of using gender bias research

A

Can lead to devaluation of women and discrimination

Can lead to discrimination of men in child custody cases

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40
Q

Limitation - universal research/real differences

A

Evolutionary explanations of aggression

Explains why males are physically aggressive when females are verbally aggressive

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41
Q

What sort of sample does a nomothetic approach have?

A

Large sample

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42
Q

What sampling is used in nomothetic reserach?

A

Involve a method of sample selection to give representativeness of a larger problem

Random, stratified

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43
Q

Would the researchers use a testable hypothesis in nomothetic research?

A

Yes

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44
Q

How much data would collected in a nomothetic approach?

A

Large amount

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45
Q

What will the analysis involve in a nomothetic approach?

A

Quantitative methods (statistical methods)

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46
Q

What conclusions are drawn in nomothetic research?

A

Conclusions in relation to a wider population

Making general laws of behaviour

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47
Q

Approach - nomothetic approach

A

Biological

Behaviourist

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48
Q

Topic - nomothetic approach

A

Van Ijzendoorn

Able to generalise

More scientific/objective

49
Q

Limitation of nomothetic approach - loss of individual experience/cannot explain individual differences

A

Nomothetic approach focuses on general laws and may “lose the whole person” within psychology

Knowing about a 1% lifetime risk of SZ says little about disorder - might be useful for therapeutic ideas

In its search for generalities, nomothetic approach may sometimes fail to relate to “experience”

50
Q

What kind of sample is used in the idiographic approach?

A

Small sample

Case studies

51
Q

What sampling method is used in the idiographic approach?

A

Volunteer

Opportunity

52
Q

Does the researcher have a testable hypothesis in an idiographic approach?

A

No

53
Q

What data is collected in idiographic research?

A

Large amount of detailed data

54
Q

What does analysis involve in the idiographic approach?

A

Qualitative data (self-report methods)

55
Q

What conclusions are drawn in idiographic research?

A

Conclusions and assumptions about one person

56
Q

Approach - idiographic approach

A

Humanistic

Psychodynamic

57
Q

Topic - idiographic approach

A

Case studies

Clive Wearing - update theory of LTM

Multiple factors/more detailed

58
Q

Name case studies that have been studied

A

KF

HM

Clive Wearing

Little Albert

Little Hans

Phineas Gage

Romanian orphans

Jeany

Czech twins

Kim Peake

59
Q

Limitation of idiographic approach - problems with case studies

A

Lack of practical application as the theory is only for that person

Unhelpful as has no usability

Cannot be replicated

Cannot be generalised

Less scientific

60
Q

What is the compromise for nomothetic vs idiographic?

A
  1. nomothetic approach
  2. averages - general law/theory
  3. anomalies - case studies/idiographic approach
  4. update theories to explain anomalies
61
Q

What is cultural relativism?

A

Appreciating that behaviour varies between cultures

62
Q

What is ethnocentrism?

A

Making one culture’s behaviour the norm

63
Q

Topic - ethnocentrism

A

Asch’s study

Believed all countries should act the same way

36.8% conformity

Smith and Bond
- found differences in cultural differences in conformity
- Belgium = 14%
- Fiji = 53%

64
Q

What is cultural holism?

A

Considering all aspects of experience, including culture

65
Q

What is cultural universality?

A

Believing that some behaviours are the same for all cultures

66
Q

Topic - cultural universality

A

Authoritarian personality

67
Q

What is cultural alpha bias?

A

Exaggerating the difference between cultures

68
Q

What is cultural beta bias?

A

Minimising the difference between cultures

69
Q

Topic - cultural bias - Strange Situation

A

Ethnocentrism - Takahashi “disproves”

Babies were very distressed when mothers left, they were all insecure-resistant

Japanese babies aren’t left alone for first 3 years

Problematic method - not culturally diverse

70
Q

Counterpoint cultural bias - Strange Situation

A

Van Ijzendoorn

Meta-analysis did find universal result (secure)

71
Q

Limitation - showing universal research

A

Takano and Osaka

Reviewed 15 studies that investigated differences in results from US studies and Japanese replications

Found no difference

72
Q

Limitation - problems with cultural bias research

A

Can lead to discrimination - mental health diagnosis

Cochrane and Sashidharan
- In America, African-Caribbean immigrant 7x more likely to be diagnosed with mental illness

73
Q

What are the solutions for cultural bias?

A

Don’t attempt extrapolate findings/theories to cultures not represented in research sample

Use researchers native to culture being investigated

Carry out cross-cultural research

Don’t assume universal norms/standards across different cultures

Be sensitive to cultural norms/standards when designing research/reporting findings

Study single culture to under that culture (emic approach)

Taking a reflexive approach (i.e. constantly reflecting on own biases when carrying out research)

74
Q

What is holism?

A

Exploring the WHOLE behaviour in the CONTEXT of the situation

75
Q

What is the holistic view?

A

Cannot predict how whole system will behave just from a knowledge of the individual components

Understand complexities in human behaviour (Gestalt psychologists look at perception through holistic approach)

76
Q

Approach - holism

A

Humanistic

77
Q

Topic - holism

A

Diathesis stress model of OCD/SZ - genes and environmental trauma cause OCD/SZ

Social influence - Asch/Zimbardo

78
Q

Limitation of holism - less scientific

A

Less scientific in their methods of research

Can lead to abstract ideas which have not been thoroughly tested

79
Q

Strength of holism - group behaviour

A

Cannot be explained at an individual level

Effects of conformity cannot be understood by studying individuals

Milgram, Asch, Zimbardo

80
Q

What is reductionism?

A

Explaining a phenomenon by breaking it into simpler parts and studying the underlying elements

81
Q

What are the two types of reductionism?

A

Biological

Environmental

82
Q

What is biological reductionism?

A

Human behaviour can be reduced down to a physical level (neurons, hormones, neurotransmitters, etc)

83
Q

Topic - biological reductionism

A

Biological explanations of OCD

84
Q

What is another name for environmental reductionism?

A

Stimulus-response reductionism

85
Q

What is environmental reductionism?

A

Human behaviour can be reduced down to a “response”

A simple relationship between behaviour and event

86
Q

Topic - environmental reductionism

A

Little Albert

Behavioural explanations of phobias

87
Q

Limitation of reductionism - complexities of behaviour

A

Misses complexity of many behaviours and fails to take into account context of behaviour

Wolpe
- treated a women with a phobia of insects with SD however her phobia never improved
- no classical conditioning
- placed fear of husband onto fear of insects

88
Q

Rank the sciences from reductionist to holistic

A

Reductionist

  • molecules and atoms (physics)
  • cells and neurotransmitters (chemistry)
  • organs (biology)
  • behaviour of individuals (psychology)
  • behaviour of groups (sociology)

Holistic

89
Q

What is the compromise for reductionism vs holism?

A

Levels of explanation

90
Q

What are levels of explanation?

A

Explanations vary from those at a lower or fundamental level focusing on basic components or units to those at a higher more holistic multivariable level

91
Q

What can you NOT talk about in ethical implications and socially sensitive research?

A

DO NOT MENTION ETHICAL ISSUES

92
Q

What are the ethical implications that need to be considered?

A

Implications

Uses/public policy

Validity of the research

93
Q

What does implications mean?

A

Wider impacts after PUBLISHING research

94
Q

What is meant by the uses/public policy or research?

A

What is the research going to be used for?

Could it be used by the wrong people?

95
Q

What is meant by the validity of the research in ethical implications?

A

Are there any biases?

Any chance of fake results?

96
Q

What is socially sensitive research?

A

Any psychological research that has ethical implications that go beyond the research situation and affect people or groups in the wider society

97
Q

What people/groups might potentially be affected by socially sensitive research?

A

Participants who took part in the research

Families or other people close to participants

Subgroups or cultures within society (ethnic minorities etc)

Researchers and their institutions

98
Q

Topic - EI and SSR - Bowlby’s monotropic theory

A

Cost
- told fathers they didn’t mean anything
- custody case bias against fathers
- parental responsibility
- mothers blamed for things
- working mothers blamed

Benefit
- patient-family accommodation
- waiting times in hospitals

99
Q

Topic - EI and SSR - genetic explanation of OCD

A

Cost
- blames parents

Benefit
- can do gene screening for quicker diagnosis

100
Q

Topic - EI and SSR - aggression gene

A

Cost
- discrimination and legal system

Benefit
- can offer therapy
- help support

101
Q

Limitations - problems of SSR

A

Eugenics

In 1920s, large number of US states enacted legislation that led to compulsory sterilisation of many of its citizens

People judged to be feeble-minded and a drain on society (low intelligence, drug/alcohol addicts, people with mental health disorders)

Some psychologists argued people unfit to breed

For social control

102
Q

Limitations - problems if we don’t have SSR

A

Stanley and Sieber
- SSR research is a necessity
- researchers need to take more responsibility

Peer reviews continuously update is needed to help increase understanding

103
Q

What are the solutions for ethical implications and socially sensitive research?

A

Anonymity

Peer reviews

Checking ethical committees and guidelines

104
Q

What is free will?

A

Where a person has 100% control over their behaviour

The power of acting without the constraint of necessity or fate; the ability to act at one’s own discretion

The idea we have options, choices

105
Q

Approach - free will

A

Humanistic

106
Q

Topic - free will

A

Rotter - internal locus of control

We make all our own decisions

Robert et al
- adolescents with ILOC are less likely to develop depression and more likely to have better mental health compared to those with an ELOC

107
Q

Limitation of free will - testing free will

A

Very hard to test free will

Libet’s experiment didn’t show proof of free will

108
Q

What is (hard) determinism?

A

The general idea that traits and behaviours are outside our control, due to factors either INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL over which we have no control

109
Q

What is biological determinism?

A

The idea that traits and behaviours are governed by internal factors like genes, NEUROCHEMISTRY, BRAIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Biology is destiny

110
Q

Topic - biological determinism

A

Biological explanations of OCD

111
Q

What is environmental determinism?

A

The idea that traits and behaviours are governed by external forces such as experience, UPBRINGING, LEARNING, schools, parents, peers, etc

112
Q

Topic - environmental determinism

A

Behavioural explanation of phobias

113
Q

What is psychic determinism?

A

The idea that traits and behaviours are governed by UNCONSCIOUS INSTINCTS and drives

The cause of behaviour is rooted in CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES

114
Q

Topic - psychic determinism

A

Oedipus/Electra complex

115
Q

Limitation of determinism - legal system

A

Legal system doesn’t believe in determinism

116
Q

What are causal explanations?

A

Establish cause and effect

Controlled environment - reduced extraneous variables

Change of IV impact on DV

117
Q

Topic - causal explanations

A

Loftus and Palmer

Cause = leading questions
Effect = affect accuracy of EWT (reduced)

Controlled = lab study, same distractor questions, same critical question just with different verbs, same video, same leading question in a group

IV = critical verb used (smashed, bumped, contacted, collided, hit)
DV = estimated speed of car in mph

118
Q

What is the compromise in free will vs determinism?

A

Soft determinism

119
Q

What is soft determinism?

A

The idea that behaviours/traits/actions are to an extent governed by internal/external forces but, despite this, we still have some element of control over our behaviours/actions/traits

Psychology (11 decks)

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