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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is coding?

A

How you store and retrieve memories

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2
Q

What is capacity?

A

How much information you can store

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3
Q

What is duration?

A

How long you can store information

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4
Q

How does STM code?

A

Acoustically

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5
Q

How does LTM code?

A

Semantically

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6
Q

What was Baddeley’s experiment in coding?

A

Tested immediate recall and recall after 20 minutes

Using acoustically and semantically similar and dissimilar words

Immediate recall was worse with acoustically similar - STM codes acoustically

Recall after 20 minutes was worse with semantically similar - LTM codes semantically

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7
Q

What is the capacity of STM?

A

7 +/- 2 chunks of information

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8
Q

What is the capacity of LTM?

A

Unlimited

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9
Q

What was Jacob’s experiment into the capacity of STM?

A

Researcher reads digits and increases until participant cannot recall order correctly

Final number = digit span

Numbers = 9

Letters = 7

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10
Q

What is the duration of STM?

A

18-30 seconds

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11
Q

What is the duration of LTM?

A

Unlimited

48+ years

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12
Q

What was Peterson and Peterson’s experiment into duration

A

24 students given consonant syllable (e.g. YCG) to recall and 3-digit number to count backwards from

Retention interval varied (3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18)

After 3 seconds = average recall 80%

After 18 seconds = average recall 3%

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13
Q

What are the three types of LTM?

A

Semantic

Procedural

Episodic

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14
Q

What is semantic LTM?

A

Memories of facts and knowledge

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15
Q

Is there effort needed to remember semantic memory?

A

Yes

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16
Q

Is there time stamping in semantic memory?

A

No

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17
Q

What detail is included in semantic memory?

A

Some will have context (remember when you learnt it) but mainly don’t

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18
Q

What brain area is semantic LTM in?

A

Frontal lobe

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19
Q

What is procedural LTM?

A

Memory of skills and actions

Muscle memory

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20
Q

Is there effort needed to remember procedural LTM?

A

No

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21
Q

Is there time stamping in procedural LTM?

A

No

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22
Q

What detail is included in procedural LTM?

A

Step by step instructions of personal experience

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23
Q

What brain area is procedural LTM in?

A

Cerebellum

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24
Q

What is episodic LTM?

A

Personal memories of events

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25
Q

Is there effort needed to recall episodic LTM?

A

Yes

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26
Q

Is there time stamping in episodic LTM?

A

Yes

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27
Q

What detail is included in episodic LTM?

A

Context and emotion

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28
Q

What brain area is episodic LTM in?

A

Frontal and temporal lobe

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29
Q

What type of LTM is the hardest to forget?

A

Procedural

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30
Q

What type of LTM is easiest to forget?

A

Semantic

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31
Q

Strength of types of LTM - research support

A

Got participants to perform various memory tasks while having their brains scanned by PET scanner

Semantic and episodic memories in pre-frontal cortex

Episodic memories in frontal and temporal lobe

Semantic in frontal lobe

Procedural in cerebellum

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32
Q

Limitation of types of LTM - only two types

A

Cohen and Squire

Procedural is separate but episodic and semantic stored together in one LTM store

Episodic and semantic = declarative memory

Procedural = non-declarative memory

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33
Q

Strength of types of LTM - practical application

A

Episodic memories could be improved in older people who had mild cognitive impairment

Benefits of being able to distinguish between types of LTM

Enables specific treatment to be developed

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34
Q

Strength of types of LTM - Clive Wearing

A

Cannot convert STM to LTM

Episodic LTM damaged

Procedural LTM in tact

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35
Q

Strength of types of LTM - HM case study

A

Had hippocampus removed due to epileptic fits

LTM significantly impaired

Semantic and procedural in tact

Episodic severely impaired

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36
Q

Counterpoint types of LTM - HM case studies

A

HM had brain damage which means it’s difficult to know exact parts which had been affected

Damage may not be exact cause of memory loss

Unable to conclude causal relationship between brain area and type of LTM

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37
Q

What does MSM stand for?

A

Multi-Store Model of Memory

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38
Q

What is the MSM?

A

Describes how information flows through the memory system

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39
Q

What does the MSM look like

A

Stimulus from environment
↓
Sensory register
↓ attention
STM
↓ maintenance rehearsal
↑ retrieval
LTM

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40
Q

What is the sensory register?

A

All stimuli from the environment pass into the SR

Part of memory is not one store but five, one for each sense (iconic, echoic)

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41
Q

How does the sensory register code?

A

Modularity specific, depends on the sense

Iconic = visual, echoic = acoustic

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42
Q

What is the duration of the sensory register?

A

Very brief

Less than half a second (250ms)

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43
Q

What is the capacity of the sensory register?

A

Very high (over one hundred million cells in one eye, each strong data)

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44
Q

How does information transfer from SR to STM?

A

Information passes further into memory only if ATTENTION is paid to it

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45
Q

What are the three characteristics of STM?

A

Coding = acoustic

Duration = 18 seconds unless information rehearsed

Capacity = 7 +/- 2 times before some forgetting occurs

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46
Q

What is the transfer from STM to LTM?

A

Maintenance rehearsal

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47
Q

What is maintenance rehearsal?

A

Occurs when we repeat (rehearse) material to ourselves

Can keep information in STM as long as we rehearse it

If rehearse it for long enough, passes into LTM

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48
Q

What are the three characteristics of LTM?

A

Coding = semantic

Duration = potentially unlimited

Capacity = potentially unlimited

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49
Q

What is the transfer from LTM to STM?

A

Retrieval

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50
Q

What is retrieval?

A

When we want to recall information stored in LTM, has to be transferred back to STM by a process called retrieval

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51
Q

Limitation of MSM - different types of LTM

A

Only includes one type of LTM

Semantic, procedural, episodic

Clive Wearing
- episodic damaged
- semantic and procedural in tact

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52
Q

Limitation of MSM - more than one type of rehearsal

A

Elaborative rehearsal

Add meaning to it, which allows information to be stored in LTM

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53
Q

Strength of MSM - research support

A

Baddeley

Mix up words that sound similar using STM (acoustic)

Mix up words that have similar meanings using LTM (semantic)

STM and LTM separate

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54
Q

Limitation of MSM - more than one STM

A

KF case study

Amnesia after motorcycle accident

STM recall for digits poor when heard but better when read

Separate STM for visual and auditory

55
Q

What does WMM stand for?

A

Working Memory Model

56
Q

What is the WMM?

A

Central Executive
↓
Phonological loop, Episodic buffer, Visuo-spatial sketchpad
↓
LTM

57
Q

What is the central execute?

A

In charge of WMM

Takes in incoming information

Decides which STM system is going to code the information

58
Q

What is the capacity of the central executive?

A

Very limited

59
Q

How does the central executive?

A

Visual and auditory

60
Q

What is the phonological loop?

A

Preserves the order in which information arrives

Deals with auditory information (what you hear)

Allows for maintenance rehearsal

61
Q

How does the phonological loop code?

A

Auditory

62
Q

What is the capacity of phonological loop?

A

2 seconds of what you say

63
Q

What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

Records arrangement of objects in visual field

64
Q

What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

Records arrangement of objects in visual field

65
Q

How does the visuo-spatial sketchpad code?

A

Stores visual information

66
Q

What is the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

3-4 objects

67
Q

What is the episodic buffer?

A

Temporary store for information

68
Q

How does the episodic buffer code?

A

Visual and auditory

69
Q

What is the capacity of the episodic buffer?

A

4 chunks of information

70
Q

Strength of WMM - KF case study

A

Suffered brain damage after motorbike accident

Had poor STM for verbal information but could process visual information normally

Verbal information = phonological loop

Visual information = visuo-spatial sketchpad

71
Q

Strength of WMM - practical application

A

Create diagnostic tools for neurodivergent conditions such as ADHD

Help in educational settings, creating support/resources to ensure people with ADHD have full access to education

72
Q

Strength of WMM - research support

A

Baddeley’s dual task study

Must be separate components processing visual and verbal information

Found it hard to carry out two visual tasks at the same time than to do a visual and verbal task

Both visual tasks compete for same subsystem

73
Q

Limitation of WMM - reductionist

A

MSM detailed about process of how information moves to each store whereas WMM isn’t

74
Q

Limitation of WMM - lack of clarity

A

Baddeley

Central executive is most important but the least understood component of working memory

Must be more to central executive than ‘attention’

Unsatisfactory component and challenges integrity of WMM

75
Q

What does EWT stand for?

A

Eye Witness Testimony

76
Q

What is EWT?

A

A retelling of something that happened by someone who witnessed it

77
Q

What are the factors affecting EWT?

A

Anxiety

Leading questions

Post-event discussion

78
Q

What is Yerkes-Dodson law?

A

Low anxiety means you won’t pay attention

High anxiety means you’re overwhelmed

79
Q

What effect did Johnson and Scott believe anxiety had?

A

Negative

80
Q

What was the procedure of Johnson and Scott’s experiment?

A

Participants sat in waiting room, believing they were going to take part in lab study

Participants then asked to pick man from set of 50 photos (STM)

Low-anxiety = casual conversation, man walked through with pen and grease on hands

High-anxiety = heated argument, man walked through with knife and blood on hands

81
Q

What were the results of Johnson and Scott’s experiment?

A

49% identified in low anxiety

33% identified in high anxiety

Tunnel theory of memory argues people have enhanced memory for central events

Weapon focus as a result of anxiety can have this effect

82
Q

What is weapon focus?

A

Tunnel theory of memory where individual focuses on weapon and ignores other details

83
Q

What effect did Yuille and Cutshall believe anxiety had?

A

Positive

84
Q

What was the procedure of Yuille and Cutshall’s experiment?

A

In an actual crime, gun-shop owner shot a thief dead (natural experiment)

13/21 witnesses participated in experiment

Interviewed 5 months after incident and information recalled compared to police interviews at the time (LTM)

Witnesses rated how stressed they were at time of incident

85
Q

What were the results of Yuille and Cutshall’s experiment?

A

Witnesses very accurate in what they recalled and there was little change after 5 months (age/weight/height less accurate)

Participants with highest level of stress were more accurate (88% - 75% in less-stressed group)

Anxiety doesn’t appear to reduce accuracy of EWT in real-world event and may enhance it

86
Q

Strength of anxiety in EWT - practical application

A

Enhanced cognitive interviews

87
Q

Limitation of anxiety in EWT - alternative explanations

A

Pickel et al

Unusualness rather than anxiety caused poor recall

Participants had poor recall of a hairdresser’s video when raw chicken and gun shown

88
Q

What are leading questions?

A

A question phrased in a certain way to lead you to a certain answer

Closed questions

89
Q

Do leading questions increase or decrease the accuracy of EWT?

A

Decrease

90
Q

What was the procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s experiment?

A

Participants individually watched the same value

Each participant asked a question with a critical word - verb

Verbs: smashed, contacted, hit, collided, bumped

91
Q

What were the results of Loftus and Palmer’s experiment?

A

Smashed had highest speed estimate in mph (40.5)

Contacted had lowest speed estimate in mph (31.8)

92
Q

Strengths of Loftus and Palmer experiment

A

Reduced demand characteristics - distractor questions, independent groups design

Standardised - same car crash video

93
Q

Limitations of Loftus and Palmer experiment

A

No protection from harm - cannot replicate to check validity

Low confidence sample - most students didn’t drive, driving experience = confounding variables

94
Q

Strength of leading questions - research support

A

Participants came back a week later and asked a series of questions

Critical leading question was “Did you see any broken glass?”

32% who had “smashed” as verb reported seeing broken glass

14% of who “hit” reported seeing broken glass

95
Q

What is post-event discussion?

A

A conversation after an event

96
Q

Does post-event discussion increase or decrease the accuracy of EWT?

A

Decrease

97
Q

What type of experiment did Gabbert conduct?

A

Lab

98
Q

What was the procedure of Gabbert’s experiment?

A

Paired participants watched a video of the same crime but from different perspectives so they could see elements the other couldn’t

Participants discussed what they’d seen on the video before individually completing a test of recall

Control group - no discussion and no errors

99
Q

What was the sample of Gabbert’s experiment?

A

60 students and 60 older adults

100
Q

What were the results of Gabbert’s experiment?

A

71% of participants wrongly recalled aspects of the event they didn’t see but heard in the discussion

60% of people said someone had committed the crime even though they didn’t see it

Evidence of memory conformity

101
Q

What is memory contamination?

A

When eye witnesses have influence each other

102
Q

Strength of post-event discussion - Gabbert’s experiment

A

Lab experiment

High control of variables

103
Q

Limitation of post-event discussion - Gabbert’s experiment

A

Lacks ecological validity

Not prepared to see a crime in real-life

Can’t dictate how long a discussion it

104
Q

Strength of post-event discussion - practical application

A

Advise police officers to separate witnesses as soon as possible and educate witnesses

Bodna’s research
- educate eye-witnesses about post-event discussion and its negative impact
- reduces memory conformity and increases accuracy of eye-witnesses

105
Q

Strength of post-event discussion - research support

A

Paterson and Kemp

Asked participants to watch a crime and then were given 1 or 4 pieces of information

Leading questions, media report, third party post-event discussion, co-witness post event discussion

Post-event discussion more influential than the media report or leading questions

106
Q

What are the types of cognitive interview?

A

Report everything

Reinstate the context

Change perspective

Reverse order

107
Q

What is a report everything cognitive interview?

A

The eyewitness must state all information even if they think it is INSIGNIFICANT OR IRRELEVANT

108
Q

How does a report everything cognitive interview improve EWT?

A

Recall all information even if it seems insignificant

Trigger further memories

109
Q

What is a reinstate the context cognitive interview?

A

Eye witnesses MENTALLY go back to the scene of the crime

110
Q

How does a reinstate the context cognitive interview improve EWT?

A

Adds cues to help the witness retrieve information

111
Q

What is a change perspective cognitive interview?

A

Ask the eye-witness to report the crime from another person’s perspective, i.e. VICTIM OR CRIMINAL

112
Q

How does a change perspective cognitive interview improve EWT?

A

To help the witness add detail to their statement

113
Q

What is a reverse order cognitive interview?

A

Ask the eyewitness to state the crime in a NON-CHRONOLOGICAL order, i.e. from the end of the crime to the beginning

114
Q

How does a reverse order cognitive interview improve EWT?

A

Reduces the likelihood of false information being stated

STOPS SCHEMAS

115
Q

What is an enhanced cognitive interview?

A

Usually for victims

Informal

Reduce anxiety

Open questions

Build trust/rapport

116
Q

Strength of cognitive interviews - ethical to use

A

Research into effectiveness of CI technique has been useful in improving the interview techniques in Brazil where people traditionally use interrogation, torture and ill treatment

Findings suggest CI technique could be used to develop new approach in interviewing witnesses in Brazil

Lead to reduction in amount of miscarriages of justice

117
Q

Limitation of cognitive interviews - practicality

A

Takes longer than standard police interview

Eyewitnesses may have to wait longer to give their report

Money = costs to train police officers and costs more in terms of working hours

118
Q

Limitation of cognitive interviews - different procedures

A

Thames Valley Police don’t use “changing perspectives”

Others tend to use only “reinstate the context” and “report everything”

119
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A

If a cue is to help us to recall information it has to be present at encoding and retrieval

We need the cue to find a memory

120
Q

What are the types of cue?

A

Context-dependent

State-dependent

121
Q

What is a context-dependent cue?

A

Location

If location is different to when you learnt it and when you are trying to retrieve it, you will forget

122
Q

What was Godden and Baddeley’s research?

A

Group 1 = learn on land, recall on land

Group 2 = learn underwater, recall on land

Group 3 = learn on land, recall underwater

Group 4 = learn underwater, recall underwater

Groups 2 and 3 forgot more information than 1 and 4

123
Q

What is a state-dependent cue?

A

How you feel

If the state you are in when you retrieve information is different to when you learn, you will forget

124
Q

What was Carter and Cassidy’s research?

A

Gave participants anti-histamine tablets which makes them drowsy

Group 1 = learn on drug, recall on drug

Group 2 = learn not on drug, recall on drug

Group 3 = learn on drug, recall not on drug

Group 4 = learn not on drug, recall not on drug

Groups 2 and 3 forgot more information than 1 and 4

125
Q

Limitation of retrieval failure - ecological validity

A

In the real world, location differences aren’t that extreme

Real world application

Lacks ecological validity

126
Q

Strength of retrieval failure - research support

A

Baker et al

Students randomly placed in 4 groups

Group 1 = learn chewing gum, recall chewing gum

Group 2 = learn chewing gum, recall not chewing gum

Group 3 = learn not chewing gum, recall chewing gum

Group 4 = learn not chewing gum, recall not chewing gum

Immediate recall showed little differences

After 24 hours
- group 1 = 11 words
- group 2 = 8 words
- group 3 = 7 words
group 4 = 8.5 words

127
Q

What is interference?

A

One memory blocking access to another memory

128
Q

What are the types of interference?

A

Retroactive

Proactive

129
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

When a new memory interferes with an old memory

130
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

When an old memory interferes with a new memory

131
Q

When is interference worse?

A

When information is similar

132
Q

Strength of interference - research support

A

Baddeley and Hitch

Asked rugby players to recall names of teams they’d played against during rugby season

More games they’d played (more interference), poorer the recall

Shows interference operates in same everyday solutions, increasing validity

133
Q

Limitation of interference - alternative explanation

A

Tulving and Psotka

Gave participants list of words organised into categories (not told what they were)

Recall of first list was 70% but fell with each new list (interference)

When given a cued recall list (names of categories), recall rose again to 70%

Interference causes just a temporary loss of access to material still in LTM - retrieval failure

134
Q

Strength of interference - drug studies support

A

Material learnt just before taking diazepam recalled better than a placebo group a week later (retrograde facilitation)

Drug stopped new information reaching brain areas that process memories so it could not retroactively interfere with stored information

Psychology (11 decks)

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